title
Pointers in C / C++ [Full Course]

description
Pointers in C and C++ are often challenging to understand. In this course, they will be demystified, allowing you to use pointers more effectively in your code. The concepts you learn in this course apply to both C and C++. ✏️ Course developed by Harsha and Animesh from MyCodeSchool. 🔗 Read all about their amazing story here: https://www.freecodecamp.org/news/mycodeschool-youtube-channel-history/ 🔗 Check out the MyCodeSchool channel: https://www.youtube.com/user/mycodeschool 🔗 Check out the MyCodeSchool website: http://mycodeschool.com/ ⭐️ Course Contents ⭐️ ⌨️ (0:00:00) Introduction to pointers in C/C++ ⌨️ (0:10:29) Working with pointers ⌨️ (0:22:05) Pointer types, pointer arithmetic, void pointers ⌨️ (0:33:01) Pointers to Pointers in C/C++ ⌨️ (0:42:21) Pointers as function arguments - call by reference ⌨️ (0:56:36) Pointers and arrays ⌨️ (1:05:18) Arrays as function arguments ⌨️ (1:18:10) Character arrays and pointers - part 1 ⌨️ (1:32:49) Character arrays and pointers - part 2 ⌨️ (1:42:49) Pointers and 2-D arrays ⌨️ (1:55:07) Pointers and multidimensional arrays ⌨️ (2:11:50) Pointers and dynamic memory - stack vs heap ⌨️ (2:29:14) Dynamic memory allocation in C - malloc calloc realloc free ⌨️ (2:36:48) Pointers as function returns in C/C++ ⌨️ (3:02:01) Function Pointers in C / C++ ⌨️ (3:13:57) Function pointers and callbacks ⌨️ (3:29:16) Memory leak in C/C++ ⭐️ Special thanks to our Champion supporters! ⭐️ 🏆 Loc Do 🏆 Joseph C 🏆 DeezMaster -- Learn to code for free and get a developer job: https://www.freecodecamp.org Read hundreds of articles on programming: https://freecodecamp.org/news

detail
{'title': 'Pointers in C / C++ [Full Course]', 'heatmap': [{'end': 1369.998, 'start': 1224.032, 'weight': 0.977}, {'end': 3960.569, 'start': 3818.026, 'weight': 0.705}, {'end': 5325.587, 'start': 5179.213, 'weight': 0.772}, {'end': 6556.278, 'start': 6411.094, 'weight': 1}, {'end': 9551.217, 'start': 9413.274, 'weight': 0.813}], 'summary': 'Course on pointers in c / c++ covers fundamental concepts including pointer functionality, syntax, and implications, memory allocation, manipulation, dereferencing, pointer arithmetic, user-defined functions, memory segments, array storage, string manipulation, multi-dimensional arrays, memory management, dynamic arrays, dynamic memory allocation using malloc, calloc, realloc, and free, call by value and call by reference, memory allocation, program execution, function pointers, event handling, and memory leaks in c/c++, with practical examples and emphasis on the importance of understanding these essential concepts.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1506.724, 'segs': [{'end': 79.534, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 23.151, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 32.118, 'text': 'Pointer is a very fundamental and important concept in programming but a lot of beginner programmers find it difficult to understand pointers.', 'start': 23.151, 'duration': 8.967}, {'end': 42.146, 'text': 'So, in this lesson, we will try to demystify pointers, and all you need to know to understand this lesson is how to write a basic C program,', 'start': 32.778, 'duration': 9.368}, {'end': 47.27, 'text': 'how to declare a variable and how to do simple arithmetic upon those variables.', 'start': 42.146, 'duration': 5.124}, {'end': 49.131, 'text': "Okay, so let's get started.", 'start': 48.11, 'duration': 1.021}, {'end': 58.637, 'text': "To understand pointers, we first should understand how various data types or various variables are stored in computer's memory.", 'start': 49.451, 'duration': 9.186}, {'end': 64.782, 'text': "Okay, so let us say this figure in the right here is computer's memory.", 'start': 59.758, 'duration': 5.024}, {'end': 73.168, 'text': "And when we talk about computer's memory in context of program execution, we mostly talk about the random access memory or the RAM.", 'start': 65.322, 'duration': 7.846}, {'end': 79.534, 'text': 'We often say that my machine has got 2GB of RAM or 4GB of RAM.', 'start': 73.948, 'duration': 5.586}], 'summary': 'Demystifying pointers in programming using c and understanding memory storage in ram.', 'duration': 56.383, 'max_score': 23.151, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M23151.jpg'}, {'end': 269.885, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 241.803, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 247.967, 'text': 'When our machine or computer sees such a statement, it looks into the lookup table for this variable a.', 'start': 241.803, 'duration': 6.164}, {'end': 253.431, 'text': 'So it finds this variable a that it is an integer and it is at address 204.', 'start': 247.967, 'duration': 5.464}, {'end': 260.475, 'text': 'So it goes at address 204 and in these four bytes starting 204, it writes this value.', 'start': 253.431, 'duration': 7.044}, {'end': 269.885, 'text': 'Now in reality the value is written in binary but for the sake of understanding we are writing here in decimal form.', 'start': 262.657, 'duration': 7.228}], 'summary': 'Machine writes integer value 204 to address 204.', 'duration': 28.082, 'max_score': 241.803, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M241803.jpg'}, {'end': 507.661, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 477.918, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 486.36, 'text': 'Okay, so if we try to print p, then the output will be 204 because p has a value 204.', 'start': 477.918, 'duration': 8.442}, {'end': 494.942, 'text': 'What if we simply try to print ampersand of a? Ampersand of a also gives us the address of a, so this will also be 204.', 'start': 486.36, 'duration': 8.582}, {'end': 498.283, 'text': 'What if we want to print ampersand of p??', 'start': 494.942, 'duration': 3.341}, {'end': 503.118, 'text': 'Now, p is also a variable and it is also stored in the memory.', 'start': 499.997, 'duration': 3.121}, {'end': 507.661, 'text': 'so ampersand, since it gives you the address of that variable.', 'start': 503.118, 'duration': 4.543}], 'summary': 'Printing ampersand of a and p gives the address, which is 204.', 'duration': 29.743, 'max_score': 477.918, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M477918.jpg'}, {'end': 621.566, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 594.613, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 601.737, 'text': 'so if we try to print a pointer variable without asterisk sign or operate upon it without asterisk sign, we are operating with the address,', 'start': 594.613, 'duration': 7.124}, {'end': 610.421, 'text': 'while if we put an asterisk sign in front of the pointer variable and operate upon it, then we are operating the value at that address.', 'start': 601.737, 'duration': 8.684}, {'end': 613.262, 'text': 'so this was some of the basics of pointers.', 'start': 610.421, 'duration': 2.841}, {'end': 621.566, 'text': 'in the coming lessons we will see some code snippets where we will see some of the common errors that we make while using pointers,', 'start': 613.262, 'duration': 8.304}], 'summary': 'Pointer basics: use asterisk for value, no asterisk for address. common errors to be covered later.', 'duration': 26.953, 'max_score': 594.613, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M594613.jpg'}, {'end': 685.788, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 659.446, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 667.828, 'text': 'But we declare a pointer variable with a syntax data type and an asterisk sign followed by the variable name.', 'start': 659.446, 'duration': 8.382}, {'end': 673.57, 'text': 'We need an integer pointer variable to store the address of an integer.', 'start': 669.189, 'duration': 4.381}, {'end': 679.744, 'text': 'to store the address of, say, a character variable, we will need character pointer.', 'start': 673.57, 'duration': 6.174}, {'end': 681.625, 'text': 'So, the same syntax will be used.', 'start': 679.844, 'duration': 1.781}, {'end': 685.788, 'text': "We put an asterisk sign and let's say the name of the variable is p0.", 'start': 681.665, 'duration': 4.123}], 'summary': 'Pointer variables store addresses of data types, e.g., integer or character.', 'duration': 26.342, 'max_score': 659.446, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M659446.jpg'}, {'end': 1136.742, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1103.08, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 1110.045, 'text': 'In the first statement I will print p and in another statement I will print p plus 1.', 'start': 1103.08, 'duration': 6.965}, {'end': 1117.698, 'text': 'Now is it really possible to do so? Can we really increment and decrement a pointer variable? Well, yes, we can do so.', 'start': 1110.045, 'duration': 7.653}, {'end': 1125.861, 'text': "So now let's assume that the address stored in P is something like 2002.", 'start': 1118.378, 'duration': 7.483}, {'end': 1132.859, 'text': 'So any guesses what P plus one will be? Will it be 2003? Well, no.', 'start': 1125.861, 'duration': 6.998}, {'end': 1136.742, 'text': 'p plus 1 will be 2006.', 'start': 1133.079, 'duration': 3.663}], 'summary': 'Pointer variable can be incremented, p+1 equals 2006.', 'duration': 33.662, 'max_score': 1103.08, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1103080.jpg'}, {'end': 1369.998, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 1224.032, 'weight': 0.977, 'content': [{'end': 1232.193, 'text': 'so this will be like two zero, one zero, p plus 2 will be 2, 0, 1, 0, and this 2, 0, 0, 2 and 2, 0, 1,', 'start': 1224.032, 'duration': 8.161}, {'end': 1235.976, 'text': "0 is something that I've picked up randomly just for the sake of example.", 'start': 1232.193, 'duration': 3.783}, {'end': 1240.88, 'text': 'Okay, so now once again what if I want to print the value at this particular address.', 'start': 1235.996, 'duration': 4.884}, {'end': 1243.142, 'text': "So I'm printing two more lines here now.", 'start': 1241.281, 'duration': 1.861}, {'end': 1248.947, 'text': "I'm printing that value at address p is and I'll print star p, which gives us the value at that address,", 'start': 1243.442, 'duration': 5.505}, {'end': 1258.556, 'text': 'and we will print another line where we will say that value at address p plus 1 is, and this should be star p plus 1..', 'start': 1250.129, 'duration': 8.427}, {'end': 1260.537, 'text': 'We put the star operator in front of the address.', 'start': 1258.556, 'duration': 1.981}, {'end': 1262.619, 'text': 'Okay, so now what will be the output?', 'start': 1261.178, 'duration': 1.441}, {'end': 1268.363, 'text': 'Okay, so the output is that address p is some address and value at address p is 10, which is alright,', 'start': 1263.239, 'duration': 5.124}, {'end': 1272.667, 'text': 'because we had stored the address of variable a in p.', 'start': 1268.363, 'duration': 4.304}, {'end': 1277.55, 'text': 'Now, next line is size of integer is 4 bytes and p plus 1 is 4 more than the address p.', 'start': 1272.667, 'duration': 4.883}, {'end': 1282.372, 'text': 'And the value at address p plus 1 is some integer value that I do not know about.', 'start': 1278.391, 'duration': 3.981}, {'end': 1289.715, 'text': 'In fact, this is some garbage value because we do not really have an integer allocated to this particular memory address.', 'start': 1282.933, 'duration': 6.782}, {'end': 1293.136, 'text': 'And this is one dangerous thing about C.', 'start': 1290.275, 'duration': 2.861}, {'end': 1294.436, 'text': 'Using pointer arithmetic.', 'start': 1293.136, 'duration': 1.3}, {'end': 1302.82, 'text': 'using pointer manipulation, you can reach to any address and sometimes these kind of operations can bring some unwanted behavior to your program.', 'start': 1294.436, 'duration': 8.384}, {'end': 1311.304, 'text': 'I recommend trying these things out, these snippet of code with other data types like character or float and the results will be similar.', 'start': 1303.3, 'duration': 8.004}, {'end': 1322.549, 'text': 'So this was some playing around with pointers and in the coming lessons we will talk more about pointers and we will talk about pointers in the context of arrays.', 'start': 1311.744, 'duration': 10.805}, {'end': 1324.59, 'text': 'So thanks for watching.', 'start': 1323.589, 'duration': 1.001}, {'end': 1331.64, 'text': 'So far in our previous lessons we have seen how to work with pointer variables.', 'start': 1327.034, 'duration': 4.606}, {'end': 1334.464, 'text': 'So we pretty much understand the basics.', 'start': 1332.561, 'duration': 1.903}, {'end': 1341.033, 'text': 'In this lesson we will write some more code using pointers and we will look through some of these concepts.', 'start': 1335.165, 'duration': 5.868}, {'end': 1343.776, 'text': 'in more detail using some examples.', 'start': 1342.114, 'duration': 1.662}, {'end': 1348.622, 'text': 'The first thing that I want to point out is that pointer variables are strongly typed.', 'start': 1344.477, 'duration': 4.145}, {'end': 1357.333, 'text': 'What it means is that you need a pointer variable of a particular type to store the address of a particular type of variable.', 'start': 1349.383, 'duration': 7.95}, {'end': 1362.316, 'text': 'So int star or a pointer to integer will be needed to store the address of an integer,', 'start': 1357.553, 'duration': 4.763}, {'end': 1369.998, 'text': 'character pointer will be needed to store the address of a character and similarly, if we have a user defined structure or class,', 'start': 1362.316, 'duration': 7.682}], 'summary': 'Playing around with pointers in c, understanding pointer manipulation and its potential impact, including the importance of strongly typed pointer variables.', 'duration': 145.966, 'max_score': 1224.032, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1224032.jpg'}], 'start': 0.069, 'title': 'Understanding pointers in c and c++', 'summary': 'Covers the concept of pointers, including their functionality, syntax, and implications, with a focus on memory allocation, manipulation, dereferencing, and pointer arithmetic in c and c++, addressing potential errors and dangers associated with uninitialized and weakly typed pointers.', 'chapters': [{'end': 293.782, 'start': 0.069, 'title': 'Understanding pointers in c', 'summary': "Explains the concept of pointers in c, addressing the difficulties faced by beginner programmers and illustrating how various data types and variables are stored in a computer's memory, with a focus on the allocation and manipulation of memory addresses.", 'duration': 293.713, 'highlights': ['The computer allocates memory for variables based on their data type, with an integer being allocated four bytes of memory, a character one byte, and a float four bytes. In a typical modern day compiler, an integer is allocated four bytes of memory, character variable is allocated one byte of memory, float is allocated four bytes of memory.', 'The process of declaring variables and performing operations on them is explained with practical examples, such as initializing and incrementing a variable. The chapter illustrates the process of declaring variables and performing operations on them with practical examples, such as initializing a variable to five and then incrementing it.', "The concept of pointers, along with the storage of various data types and variables in a computer's memory, is demystified for beginner programmers. The chapter demystifies the concept of pointers and the storage of various data types and variables in a computer's memory, aiming to address the difficulties faced by beginner programmers."]}, {'end': 883.357, 'start': 294.503, 'title': 'Introduction to pointers in c++', 'summary': 'Introduces the concept of pointers in c and c++, explaining the functionality of pointers to store memory addresses and their ability to retrieve and modify values at those addresses. it also explores the syntax of pointer variables and highlights the potential errors associated with uninitialized pointers in an example c program.', 'duration': 588.854, 'highlights': ['Pointers are variables that store the address of another variable, allowing for operations on memory addresses in a C or C++ program.', 'The syntax of pointer variables in C involves using an asterisk sign before the variable name to indicate a pointer variable, and the ampersand sign to retrieve the address of a variable.', 'When working with pointers, the asterisk sign in front of the pointer is used to access the value at the location it points to, a concept known as dereferencing.', 'An example C program demonstrates the error of using an uninitialized pointer, highlighting the importance of initializing pointer variables to avoid program crashes and undefined behavior.']}, {'end': 1102.18, 'start': 883.357, 'title': 'Pointers and dereferencing', 'summary': 'Covers the concept of pointers and dereferencing, including the use of ampersand operator to obtain addresses, dereferencing to modify values, and the implications of pointer assignment and pointer arithmetic.', 'duration': 218.823, 'highlights': ["The ampersand operator is used to obtain the address of a variable, such as '&A', and dereferencing is used to modify the value at that address, as in '*P = 12', showcasing the concept of pointers and addresses.", "Modifying the value using the pointer, such as '*P = 12', results in changing the value of the variable being pointed to, demonstrated by the modification of the value of 'A' from 10 to 12.", "In pointer assignment, such as '*P = b', the address in 'P' does not change to point to 'b' unless explicitly assigned with 'P = &b', highlighting the implications of pointer assignment and the necessity of explicit reassignment to a new address.", "The concept of declaring pointers, including the syntax 'int *P = &A', the alternative 'int* P = &A', and the declaration and initialization in a single statement 'int *P = &A', is explained, providing insight into different approaches for declaring pointers.", 'The chapter also briefly mentions pointer arithmetic and the preference for declaring and initializing variables in two separate statements for clarity and reduced confusion.']}, {'end': 1282.372, 'start': 1103.08, 'title': 'Pointer increment and decrement in c', 'summary': 'Explores the concept of incrementing and decrementing pointer variables in c, demonstrating how the address of a pointer variable changes when incremented or decremented, and the impact of data type size on the address increment, with specific examples and output results.', 'duration': 179.292, 'highlights': ['Incrementing a pointer variable by 1 unit in C results in an address increment by the size of the data type, illustrated by the example of an integer pointer where incrementing by 1 unit leads to an address increment by 4 bytes.', 'The size of an integer in the given compiler is determined to be 4 bytes, verified through the use of the sizeof function in C.', 'Demonstration of the impact of incrementing a pointer variable by 2 units, resulting in an address increment by 8 bytes, showcasing the direct correlation between the increment value and the size of the data type.', 'Illustration of accessing the value at a specific address by dereferencing the pointer using the star operator, with output results showing the value at the original address and the incremented address.']}, {'end': 1506.724, 'start': 1282.933, 'title': 'Pointers and pointer variables', 'summary': 'Emphasizes the dangers of pointer arithmetic in c and the need for strongly typed pointer variables, explaining the differences in memory storage for various data types and the importance of strong typing for accessing and modifying values.', 'duration': 223.791, 'highlights': ['The danger of pointer arithmetic in C Pointer arithmetic in C allows reaching any address, leading to unwanted behavior.', 'Need for strongly typed pointer variables Pointer variables are strongly typed to store the address of a specific type of variable, ensuring proper access and modification of values.', 'Differences in memory storage for various data types Explains the differences in memory storage for integers, characters, and floats, emphasizing their varying sizes and storage methods.']}], 'duration': 1506.655, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M69.jpg', 'highlights': ["The concept of pointers, along with the storage of various data types and variables in a computer's memory, is demystified for beginner programmers.", 'The process of declaring variables and performing operations on them is explained with practical examples.', 'Pointers are variables that store the address of another variable, allowing for operations on memory addresses in a C or C++ program.', 'The syntax of pointer variables in C involves using an asterisk sign before the variable name to indicate a pointer variable, and the ampersand sign to retrieve the address of a variable.', "The ampersand operator is used to obtain the address of a variable, such as '&A', and dereferencing is used to modify the value at that address, as in '*P = 12', showcasing the concept of pointers and addresses.", 'Incrementing a pointer variable by 1 unit in C results in an address increment by the size of the data type, illustrated by the example of an integer pointer where incrementing by 1 unit leads to an address increment by 4 bytes.', 'The danger of pointer arithmetic in C Pointer arithmetic in C allows reaching any address, leading to unwanted behavior.', 'Differences in memory storage for various data types Explains the differences in memory storage for integers, characters, and floats, emphasizing their varying sizes and storage methods.']}, {'end': 2581.836, 'segs': [{'end': 1532.696, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1507.944, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 1516.267, 'text': 'Now what if I declare a pointer to integer p and store the address of a in p by using the ampersand operator.', 'start': 1507.944, 'duration': 8.323}, {'end': 1526.008, 'text': 'What will happen if I print the value of p? The value of p or the address stored in p will be 200, the address of byte 0.', 'start': 1517.318, 'duration': 8.69}, {'end': 1532.696, 'text': 'So, we are kind of saying that we have the address of an integer variable starting at address 200.', 'start': 1526.008, 'duration': 6.688}], 'summary': 'Declaring a pointer to integer and storing the address of a variable. value of p will be 200.', 'duration': 24.752, 'max_score': 1507.944, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1507944.jpg'}, {'end': 1584.565, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1561.146, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 1570.414, 'text': 'Now, if p was a character pointer, then while dereferencing, the machine would have looked at only 1 byte because a character variable is only 1 byte.', 'start': 1561.146, 'duration': 9.268}, {'end': 1576.158, 'text': 'If p was a pointer to float, then although float is also stored in four bytes.', 'start': 1570.874, 'duration': 5.284}, {'end': 1584.565, 'text': 'but the way information is written for float in these four bytes is different from the way information is written for an integer data type.', 'start': 1576.158, 'duration': 8.407}], 'summary': 'Pointer dereferencing: 1 byte for character, 4 bytes for float with different storage', 'duration': 23.419, 'max_score': 1561.146, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1561146.jpg'}, {'end': 1707.464, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1683.574, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 1689.881, 'text': 'And the second is the address is P zero and the value at address is a strict P zero.', 'start': 1683.574, 'duration': 6.307}, {'end': 1692.584, 'text': 'So we D reference we try to D reference P zero now.', 'start': 1689.901, 'duration': 2.683}, {'end': 1695.635, 'text': "and let us see what's the output now.", 'start': 1693.573, 'duration': 2.062}, {'end': 1698.917, 'text': 'The first line of output is size of integer is 4 bytes.', 'start': 1696.295, 'duration': 2.622}, {'end': 1704.602, 'text': 'Address, because we are running the program fresh, this address will not be the previous address.', 'start': 1699.558, 'duration': 5.044}, {'end': 1707.464, 'text': 'The address from the previous run, this will be a different address.', 'start': 1704.622, 'duration': 2.842}], 'summary': 'The program output indicates the size of an integer as 4 bytes, with different addresses on consecutive runs.', 'duration': 23.89, 'max_score': 1683.574, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1683574.jpg'}, {'end': 1773.776, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1744.958, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 1751.404, 'text': 'But when we dereference P zero, because P zero is a pointer to character, the machine says that, hey, this is a pointer to a character.', 'start': 1744.958, 'duration': 6.446}, {'end': 1753.386, 'text': 'And the character is only one byte.', 'start': 1751.925, 'duration': 1.461}, {'end': 1756.049, 'text': 'So I look at only one byte to see the value.', 'start': 1753.927, 'duration': 2.122}, {'end': 1761.394, 'text': 'And if you see this particular byte in binary is one.', 'start': 1757.09, 'duration': 4.304}, {'end': 1764.537, 'text': "And that's why this output here is one.", 'start': 1762.535, 'duration': 2.002}, {'end': 1767.98, 'text': "Okay, I'll write two more print statements now.", 'start': 1765.798, 'duration': 2.182}, {'end': 1773.776, 'text': '1 to print the address p plus 1 and the value at address p plus 1.', 'start': 1769.035, 'duration': 4.741}], 'summary': 'Dereferencing pointer p zero reveals value 1 in binary, resulting in output of 1.', 'duration': 28.818, 'max_score': 1744.958, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1744958.jpg'}, {'end': 1901.027, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1861.042, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1871.567, 'text': 'If you see p0 plus 1 will take us to this particular byte, the address of this particular byte and this particular byte in binary is 4.', 'start': 1861.042, 'duration': 10.525}, {'end': 1878.412, 'text': 'This was to show you how things happen in memory when we dereference a pointer variable by using the asterisk operator,', 'start': 1871.567, 'duration': 6.845}, {'end': 1883.775, 'text': 'and also what happens when we perform pointer arithmetic with a particular pointer type.', 'start': 1878.412, 'duration': 5.363}, {'end': 1889.179, 'text': 'This typecasting of pointer variable from one to another also has some use cases.', 'start': 1884.536, 'duration': 4.643}, {'end': 1891.24, 'text': 'We will discuss them later.', 'start': 1889.939, 'duration': 1.301}, {'end': 1895.783, 'text': 'Now we will discuss one pointer type which is generic pointer type.', 'start': 1891.921, 'duration': 3.862}, {'end': 1901.027, 'text': 'It does not correspond to a particular data type and this pointer type is called void pointer.', 'start': 1896.223, 'duration': 4.804}], 'summary': 'Dereferencing and pointer arithmetic demonstrated with quantifiable example, followed by introduction to generic pointer type.', 'duration': 39.985, 'max_score': 1861.042, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1861042.jpg'}, {'end': 2149.606, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2122.772, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 2131.479, 'text': 'now one important thing here we are able to store the address of x in p because p is of type pointer to integer.', 'start': 2122.772, 'duration': 8.707}, {'end': 2140.743, 'text': 'if p was of type pointer to character or pointer to some other variable, this statement p equal ampersand x would not have been valid.', 'start': 2131.479, 'duration': 9.264}, {'end': 2149.606, 'text': 'So if I have to write down the types of these two variables, then x is an integer and p is pointer to integer.', 'start': 2141.063, 'duration': 8.543}], 'summary': 'X is an integer, p is a pointer to an integer.', 'duration': 26.834, 'max_score': 2122.772, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M2122772.jpg'}], 'start': 1507.944, 'title': 'Working with pointers and dereferencing', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of pointer dereferencing, pointer arithmetic, and pointer types in c programming, using examples and outputs. it explores void pointers, pointer to pointer, and the use cases of pointer variables.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1683.154, 'start': 1507.944, 'title': 'Pointer and dereferencing in c', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of pointers and dereferencing in c, using examples to demonstrate how the machine interprets different data types when dereferencing pointers, including the size of data types and the process of typecasting.', 'duration': 175.21, 'highlights': ['The machine retrieves the value 1025 out of these 4 bytes when dereferencing a pointer to an integer. When dereferencing a pointer to an integer, the machine retrieves the value 1025 from the 4 bytes starting at the specified address.', 'The machine would look at only 1 byte when dereferencing a character pointer. When dereferencing a character pointer, the machine looks at only 1 byte to retrieve the value of the character variable.', 'The size of integer is four bytes and the value at the specified address is 1025. The size of an integer is determined to be four bytes, and the value at the specified address is confirmed to be 1025.']}, {'end': 1883.775, 'start': 1683.574, 'title': 'Working with pointers and dereferencing', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of pointer dereferencing and pointer arithmetic using examples and outputs, demonstrating how values are retrieved and memory is accessed in c programming.', 'duration': 200.201, 'highlights': ['The address of A this time is 4456036. The value is 1025. Provides the specific address and value of variable A, demonstrating the memory allocation and value storage.', 'The address is 5373032 which is the same address as in the second line. But the value this time is 1. Illustrates the consistency of address and the change in value, emphasizing the impact of typecasting and memory representation.', 'The first line of output is size of integer is 4 bytes. Highlights the size of an integer in bytes, providing foundational knowledge for understanding memory allocation.']}, {'end': 2581.836, 'start': 1884.536, 'title': 'Pointer variables and pointer types', 'summary': 'Dives deep into pointer types, typecasting and pointer arithmetic, exploring the concept of void pointers and pointer to pointer, with examples and explanations. it also discusses the use cases of pointer variables and the scenario of using pointers as function arguments.', 'duration': 697.3, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the concept of void pointers and how to declare and use them, highlighting that void pointers are not mapped to a particular data type and cannot be dereferenced, with examples and explanations. Void pointers are declared using the keyword void and an asterisk sign in front of the variable name. They cannot be dereferenced to access a value and are not mapped to a particular data type. Examples and explanations are provided.', 'The chapter provides a detailed explanation of pointer to pointer, illustrating how to declare and use them, and highlighting the importance of strongly typed pointer variables, with examples and memory sketches. The chapter illustrates the concept of pointer to pointer, explaining the significance of strongly typed pointer variables and how to declare and use them. It provides examples and memory sketches to aid understanding.', 'The use case of pointer variables as function arguments, also known as call by reference, is discussed, emphasizing the scenarios in which pointer variables are useful, with an invitation to explore real problem scenarios in the coming lessons. The chapter discusses the use case of pointer variables as function arguments, termed call by reference, and invites exploration of real problem scenarios in the coming lessons.']}], 'duration': 1073.892, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M1507944.jpg', 'highlights': ['The machine retrieves the value 1025 out of these 4 bytes when dereferencing a pointer to an integer.', 'The size of integer is four bytes and the value at the specified address is 1025.', 'The machine would look at only 1 byte when dereferencing a character pointer.', 'The address of A this time is 4456036. The value is 1025.', 'The address is 5373032 which is the same address as in the second line. But the value this time is 1.', 'The first line of output is size of integer is 4 bytes.', 'The chapter explains the concept of void pointers and how to declare and use them, highlighting that void pointers are not mapped to a particular data type and cannot be dereferenced, with examples and explanations.', 'The chapter provides a detailed explanation of pointer to pointer, illustrating how to declare and use them, and highlighting the importance of strongly typed pointer variables, with examples and memory sketches.', 'The use case of pointer variables as function arguments, also known as call by reference, is discussed, emphasizing the scenarios in which pointer variables are useful, with an invitation to explore real problem scenarios in the coming lessons.']}, {'end': 3866.529, 'segs': [{'end': 2635.019, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2608.744, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 2616.269, 'text': 'So, instead of writing something like a plus plus or a equal to a plus one, instead of writing a statement like this,', 'start': 2608.744, 'duration': 7.525}, {'end': 2621.131, 'text': 'he writes a function increment that will take an integer a as argument.', 'start': 2616.269, 'duration': 4.862}, {'end': 2626.895, 'text': "And inside this function he's writing a statement like a is equal to a plus one.", 'start': 2621.732, 'duration': 5.163}, {'end': 2635.019, 'text': 'he calls this function increment from the main method, passing a as argument, and then he prints the value of a.', 'start': 2626.895, 'duration': 8.124}], 'summary': 'Using a function to increment an integer, a, and printing the result.', 'duration': 26.275, 'max_score': 2608.744, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M2608744.jpg'}, {'end': 3266.274, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3240.169, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 3246.656, 'text': 'Now what we are doing here is that we do not have an argument which is integer in this function increment.', 'start': 3240.169, 'duration': 6.487}, {'end': 3253.223, 'text': 'We have an argument which is pointer to integer and pointer to integer as we know it will store the address of an integer.', 'start': 3246.696, 'duration': 6.527}, {'end': 3259.629, 'text': 'So now what we are doing is that in the increment function we are passing the address of a.', 'start': 3253.923, 'duration': 5.706}, {'end': 3263.253, 'text': 'So when the program will start executing the main method will be invoked first.', 'start': 3259.629, 'duration': 3.624}, {'end': 3266.274, 'text': "Let's say this is the stack frame of the main method.", 'start': 3263.753, 'duration': 2.521}], 'summary': 'Function increment takes pointer to integer as argument to store address of integer.', 'duration': 26.105, 'max_score': 3240.169, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M3240169.jpg'}, {'end': 3516.564, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3483.344, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 3486.845, 'text': "Let's use the horizontal representation of the memory this time.", 'start': 3483.344, 'duration': 3.501}, {'end': 3493.667, 'text': "I'll show this memory a little more extending towards the right so that I can accommodate a couple of more variables.", 'start': 3487.725, 'duration': 5.942}, {'end': 3502.161, 'text': "Let's say apart from this integer array A, I have an integer variable x and its value is five.", 'start': 3494.527, 'duration': 7.634}, {'end': 3507.899, 'text': "And let's say x is located at address 300.", 'start': 3502.943, 'duration': 4.956}, {'end': 3516.564, 'text': "Now let's say I have a pointer to integer p and in p I store the address of x.", 'start': 3507.899, 'duration': 8.665}], 'summary': 'Using a horizontal memory representation, accommodating variables, and pointers.', 'duration': 33.22, 'max_score': 3483.344, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M3483344.jpg'}, {'end': 3686.177, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3654.184, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 3655.885, 'text': 'There is one more property of the array.', 'start': 3654.184, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 3662.848, 'text': 'If we just use the name of the array a, then a gives us the pointer to the first element in the array.', 'start': 3656.386, 'duration': 6.462}, {'end': 3665.89, 'text': 'So, we can write a statement like p is equal to a.', 'start': 3662.868, 'duration': 3.022}, {'end': 3670.652, 'text': 'In fact, we do not even need to take this address in another pointer variable.', 'start': 3665.89, 'duration': 4.762}, {'end': 3678.642, 'text': 'If we simply print a, then this gives us nothing but the address of the first element in the array,', 'start': 3670.992, 'duration': 7.65}, {'end': 3686.177, 'text': 'and if we want to dereference this and try to print asterisk a, then this will give us the value.', 'start': 3678.642, 'duration': 7.535}], 'summary': 'Arrays in c provide pointers to the first element and can be dereferenced for the value.', 'duration': 31.993, 'max_score': 3654.184, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M3654184.jpg'}], 'start': 2582.616, 'title': 'C and c++ programming concepts', 'summary': 'Covers user-defined functions, memory segments, function call, stack frames, pointers, arrays, and their implications in c and c++ programming, providing a comprehensive understanding of these essential concepts.', 'chapters': [{'end': 2793.726, 'start': 2582.616, 'title': 'Understanding user defined functions in c', 'summary': "Explains the concept of user defined functions using a c program, detailing how a local variable affects the function's behavior and the importance of variable scope within functions.", 'duration': 211.11, 'highlights': ['Albert tries to increment a variable using a User Defined Function, but encounters unexpected output, highlighting the confusion around local and global variable scope.', "The local variable 'a' within the increment function is different from the 'a' in the main function, leading to the unexpected output.", 'The importance of variable scope is demonstrated through the use of print statements to display the addresses of the variables, reinforcing the concept of local and global variable scope.']}, {'end': 2971.886, 'start': 2793.766, 'title': 'Memory segments and address allocation', 'summary': "Explains the different memory segments in a computer's memory, including the allocation for static variables, stack, and heap, and discusses how addresses are assigned to these segments during program execution.", 'duration': 178.12, 'highlights': ["The computer's memory for a program is typically divided into four parts: instructions, static/global variables, stack, and heap.", 'Global variables can be accessed and modified anywhere in the program, unlike local variables which are limited to a specific function or code block.', 'The allocation for the text segment, global variable segment, and stack segment is fixed and determined at the start of program execution, while the heap segment can dynamically request more memory during execution.', "Addresses in the memory are used for allocation, with specific segments such as stack being allocated a range of addresses, and the program's memory is typically assigned a specific range of addresses."]}, {'end': 3353.991, 'start': 2972.407, 'title': 'Understanding function call and stack frames', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of function call and stack frames in c programming, highlighting the storage of information in stack frames, the process of function invocation and the implications of using pointers as function arguments.', 'duration': 381.584, 'highlights': ['The information about the method call like parameters, local variables, and the current instruction is stored in the stack Describes the storage of method call information in the stack, including parameters and local variables.', 'Explanation of the process of function invocation and the allocation of stack frames for each function Details the process of function invocation and the allocation of stack frames for each function.', 'Illustration of using pointers as function arguments and their impact on accessing local variables Illustrates the use of pointers as function arguments to access local variables and explains their impact.']}, {'end': 3866.529, 'start': 3353.991, 'title': 'Pointers and arrays in c++', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of call by reference, the relationship between pointers and arrays, pointer arithmetic, and the properties of arrays in c or c++.', 'duration': 512.538, 'highlights': ['The concept of call by reference can save memory by using a reference to a large and complex data type instead of creating a copy. Call by reference can save memory by using a reference to a large and complex data type instead of creating a copy.', 'The relationship between pointers and arrays is explained, demonstrating how arrays are stored in memory and how pointers can be used to access array elements. The relationship between pointers and arrays is explained, demonstrating how arrays are stored in memory and how pointers can be used to access array elements.', 'Pointer arithmetic is demonstrated, showing how incrementing or decrementing a pointer variable by a constant can access the next or previous memory location. Pointer arithmetic is demonstrated, showing how incrementing or decrementing a pointer variable by a constant can access the next or previous memory location.', 'The properties of arrays in C or C++ are discussed, including how using the array name gives the base address of the array and how to retrieve the address and value of elements in the array. The properties of arrays in C or C++ are discussed, including how using the array name gives the base address of the array and how to retrieve the address and value of elements in the array.']}], 'duration': 1283.913, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M2582616.jpg', 'highlights': ['Covers user-defined functions, memory segments, function call, stack frames, pointers, arrays, and their implications in c and c++ programming.', 'The allocation for the text segment, global variable segment, and stack segment is fixed and determined at the start of program execution, while the heap segment can dynamically request more memory during execution.', 'The concept of call by reference can save memory by using a reference to a large and complex data type instead of creating a copy.', 'The relationship between pointers and arrays is explained, demonstrating how arrays are stored in memory and how pointers can be used to access array elements.']}, {'end': 4652.717, 'segs': [{'end': 3989.062, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3942.658, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 3952.164, 'text': 'I will write a simple C program in which I will write a function that will give me the sum of all the elements in an integer array.', 'start': 3942.658, 'duration': 9.506}, {'end': 3955.526, 'text': 'This function will take an integer array as argument.', 'start': 3952.744, 'duration': 2.782}, {'end': 3960.569, 'text': 'This is one of the ways to pass an integer array, an array in general as argument.', 'start': 3956.346, 'duration': 4.223}, {'end': 3966.032, 'text': 'This would be the data type and this would be the name of the array.', 'start': 3961.269, 'duration': 4.763}, {'end': 3971.414, 'text': 'and in the main method we have declared and initialized an array named a.', 'start': 3966.032, 'duration': 5.382}, {'end': 3978.457, 'text': 'now, in the main method we will call this function sumOfElements and pass it the array a as argument.', 'start': 3971.414, 'duration': 7.043}, {'end': 3982.899, 'text': 'and of course we need to write the body of this function, sumOfElements.', 'start': 3978.457, 'duration': 4.442}, {'end': 3989.062, 'text': 'I will declare two variables, i and another variable sum and initialize it to 0.', 'start': 3982.899, 'duration': 6.163}], 'summary': 'A c program will calculate the sum of elements in an integer array.', 'duration': 46.404, 'max_score': 3942.658, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M3942658.jpg'}, {'end': 4162.993, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4120.035, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 4123.678, 'text': 'so we will not be passing this size as argument here.', 'start': 4120.035, 'duration': 3.643}, {'end': 4127.682, 'text': 'so there will be just one argument, the array.', 'start': 4123.678, 'duration': 4.004}, {'end': 4135.228, 'text': 'so we have this array as argument, the array a, and we calculate the size here as total size of the array in bytes,', 'start': 4127.682, 'duration': 7.546}, {'end': 4138.93, 'text': 'upon the size of one integer in bytes.', 'start': 4135.228, 'duration': 3.702}, {'end': 4141.212, 'text': 'let us now run this program and see what happens.', 'start': 4138.93, 'duration': 2.282}, {'end': 4149.52, 'text': 'Oops, there seems to be some problem, because the sum of elements that we have as output on console here is equal to 1..', 'start': 4142.134, 'duration': 7.386}, {'end': 4151.363, 'text': 'It should be 15.', 'start': 4149.52, 'duration': 1.843}, {'end': 4156.667, 'text': 'And why is it so? To explain this behavior, I will write two more print statements.', 'start': 4151.363, 'duration': 5.304}, {'end': 4162.993, 'text': 'One in the function sum of elements where I will print the size of a and the size of a0.', 'start': 4157.408, 'duration': 5.585}], 'summary': 'Code error in array size calculation, sum output is 1 instead of 15', 'duration': 42.958, 'max_score': 4120.035, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M4120035.jpg'}, {'end': 4419.265, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4393.642, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 4402.352, 'text': "So let's say the starting address, the address of the first element in this array a that belongs to the main method is 200.", 'start': 4393.642, 'duration': 8.71}, {'end': 4411.221, 'text': 'So in sum of elements all that happens is a pointer to integer is created and the value in this pointer to integer is 200.', 'start': 4402.352, 'duration': 8.869}, {'end': 4419.265, 'text': 'the compiler implicitly converts this int a to something like int star a.', 'start': 4411.221, 'duration': 8.044}], 'summary': "In an array, the starting address of the first element is 200, and it's implicitly converted to a pointer to an integer.", 'duration': 25.623, 'max_score': 4393.642, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M4393642.jpg'}, {'end': 4612.33, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4578.181, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 4580.883, 'text': 'With pointer variables we can do a couple of other stuffs.', 'start': 4578.181, 'duration': 2.702}, {'end': 4588.189, 'text': 'And if we have a pointer to the starting address of the array, we can pretty much use it like a variable name for array,', 'start': 4581.664, 'duration': 6.525}, {'end': 4593.793, 'text': 'because AI is interpreted as value at address A plus I.', 'start': 4588.189, 'duration': 5.604}, {'end': 4596.796, 'text': 'So we need to keep these differences and similarities in mind.', 'start': 4593.793, 'duration': 3.003}, {'end': 4597.736, 'text': "It's a little tricky.", 'start': 4596.996, 'duration': 0.74}, {'end': 4600.719, 'text': 'there is one more thing.', 'start': 4598.817, 'duration': 1.902}, {'end': 4612.33, 'text': 'because the array is passed by reference, we can modify the elements of the array in the called function and it would reflect in the calling function.', 'start': 4600.719, 'duration': 11.611}], 'summary': 'Pointer variables allow manipulation and reference modification of array elements in functions.', 'duration': 34.149, 'max_score': 4578.181, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M4578181.jpg'}], 'start': 3866.529, 'title': 'Arrays, pointers, and sum calculation', 'summary': 'Covers the concepts of array storage in memory, manipulation of addresses, and using pointers to access array values, as well as writing a c program to calculate the sum of elements in an integer array, highlighting the importance of understanding array representation in memory.', 'chapters': [{'end': 3941.858, 'start': 3866.529, 'title': 'Arrays and pointers: memory storage and function arguments', 'summary': 'Explains how arrays are stored in memory, how addresses can be manipulated, and the usage of pointers in accessing array values, with a mention of the upcoming lessons on character arrays and passing arrays as function arguments.', 'duration': 75.329, 'highlights': ["Arrays are stored in memory and accessed through pointers, with the inability to directly increment the array variable, as demonstrated by the compilation error when attempting to increment 'a'.", 'Pointers can be used to manipulate the addresses and access the values of arrays, demonstrated by the ability to increment a pointer variable once assigned the array, unlike incrementing the array variable directly.', 'Upcoming lessons will cover character arrays and passing arrays as function arguments, providing a clear roadmap for the next topics to be addressed in the learning module.']}, {'end': 4652.717, 'start': 3942.658, 'title': 'C program: sum of elements in integer array', 'summary': 'Explains how to write a c program to calculate the sum of elements in an integer array, including the size calculation, function call stack, array passing, and modifying array elements, demonstrating the importance of understanding array representation in memory.', 'duration': 710.059, 'highlights': ['The program calculates the sum of elements in an integer array by iterating through the array and using the sizeof operator to determine the number of elements. The program iterates through the array to calculate the sum of elements and uses the sizeof operator to determine the number of elements in the array, which is crucial for the loop iteration.', 'The size of the array in the main method is 20 bytes, whereas in the sumOfElements function, it is 4 bytes due to the representation of arrays as pointers in function arguments, demonstrating the difference in memory allocation. The size of the array in the main method is 20 bytes, while in the sumOfElements function, it is 4 bytes due to the representation of arrays as pointers in function arguments, highlighting the difference in memory allocation and representation of arrays.', 'The explanation provides insights into the behavior of array passing, where arrays are always passed as reference parameters, allowing modifications to the elements in the called function to reflect in the calling function. The explanation provides insights into the behavior of array passing, highlighting that arrays are always passed as reference parameters, enabling modifications to the elements in the called function to reflect in the calling function.']}], 'duration': 786.188, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M3866529.jpg', 'highlights': ['Understanding array representation in memory is crucial for manipulating addresses and accessing array values.', 'Pointers can be used to manipulate addresses and access array values, unlike directly incrementing the array variable.', 'Upcoming lessons will cover character arrays and passing arrays as function arguments, providing a clear roadmap for the next topics.', 'The program calculates the sum of elements in an integer array by iterating through the array and using the sizeof operator.', 'The size of the array in the main method is 20 bytes, while in the sumOfElements function, it is 4 bytes due to the representation of arrays as pointers in function arguments.', 'The explanation provides insights into the behavior of array passing, highlighting that arrays are always passed as reference parameters.']}, {'end': 6019.098, 'segs': [{'end': 4900.586, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4857.448, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 4866.054, 'text': 'if we pass this string to a function that has to print the string john or find out the length of the string that we have stored in this array,', 'start': 4857.448, 'duration': 8.606}, {'end': 4875.501, 'text': 'then how would the function know that the string is only till index three, even though we have not filled anything in these indices at 456, and seven,', 'start': 4866.054, 'duration': 9.447}, {'end': 4877.162, 'text': 'there would be some garbage value there.', 'start': 4875.501, 'duration': 1.661}, {'end': 4880.885, 'text': 'So either we pass this extra information, or we do something else.', 'start': 4877.642, 'duration': 3.243}, {'end': 4885.93, 'text': 'To store this information that this is the end of the string in the character array.', 'start': 4882.028, 'duration': 3.902}, {'end': 4890.192, 'text': 'This is the used part of the string and this is the unused part.', 'start': 4886.31, 'duration': 3.882}, {'end': 4892.112, 'text': 'We use a simple design.', 'start': 4890.792, 'duration': 1.32}, {'end': 4896.774, 'text': 'At the end of the string in the next position we put a null character.', 'start': 4892.673, 'duration': 4.101}, {'end': 4900.586, 'text': 'Null character has a sky value 0.', 'start': 4897.695, 'duration': 2.891}], 'summary': 'To ensure proper string handling, a null character is placed at the end to signify the end of the string, with a value of 0.', 'duration': 43.138, 'max_score': 4857.448, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M4857448.jpg'}, {'end': 5232.738, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5200.488, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 5203.81, 'text': 'A pointer variable in a typical architecture is stored in four bytes.', 'start': 5200.488, 'duration': 3.322}, {'end': 5206.071, 'text': 'So this variable will also have some address.', 'start': 5204.35, 'duration': 1.721}, {'end': 5210.994, 'text': "Let's say this variable is at address 400 I'm just picking up these numbers for example sake.", 'start': 5206.111, 'duration': 4.883}, {'end': 5215.575, 'text': 'Now what we can do is we can write a statement like this c2 is equal to c1.', 'start': 5211.334, 'duration': 4.241}, {'end': 5224.036, 'text': 'Now, even though c1 is a character array is a variable name for character array and c2 is a variable which is pointer to character,', 'start': 5216.055, 'duration': 7.981}, {'end': 5225.897, 'text': 'this particular expression is valid.', 'start': 5224.036, 'duration': 1.861}, {'end': 5232.738, 'text': 'Just using the name of the array actually returns the address of the first element in the array.', 'start': 5226.237, 'duration': 6.501}], 'summary': 'Pointer variable in typical architecture is stored in 4 bytes. character array variable returns address of first element.', 'duration': 32.25, 'max_score': 5200.488, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M5200488.jpg'}, {'end': 5365.579, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 5179.213, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 5185.758, 'text': 'one character is of size one byte so the next character will be at address 201 and the next will be at 202 and so on.', 'start': 5179.213, 'duration': 6.545}, {'end': 5189.64, 'text': 'Now c1 is the variable name for this whole array.', 'start': 5186.318, 'duration': 3.322}, {'end': 5194.924, 'text': "Now what I'll do is, I'll declare a variable which is a pointer to character.", 'start': 5190.401, 'duration': 4.523}, {'end': 5196.525, 'text': "Let's name this c2.", 'start': 5195.344, 'duration': 1.181}, {'end': 5199.907, 'text': "So let's say we get this variable c2 somewhere in the memory.", 'start': 5196.985, 'duration': 2.922}, {'end': 5203.81, 'text': 'A pointer variable in a typical architecture is stored in four bytes.', 'start': 5200.488, 'duration': 3.322}, {'end': 5206.071, 'text': 'So this variable will also have some address.', 'start': 5204.35, 'duration': 1.721}, {'end': 5210.994, 'text': "Let's say this variable is at address 400 I'm just picking up these numbers for example sake.", 'start': 5206.111, 'duration': 4.883}, {'end': 5215.575, 'text': 'Now what we can do is we can write a statement like this c2 is equal to c1.', 'start': 5211.334, 'duration': 4.241}, {'end': 5224.036, 'text': 'Now, even though c1 is a character array is a variable name for character array and c2 is a variable which is pointer to character,', 'start': 5216.055, 'duration': 7.981}, {'end': 5225.897, 'text': 'this particular expression is valid.', 'start': 5224.036, 'duration': 1.861}, {'end': 5232.738, 'text': 'Just using the name of the array actually returns the address of the first element in the array.', 'start': 5226.237, 'duration': 6.501}, {'end': 5238.419, 'text': 'So, what this expression, what this statement will do is, it will fill in the address 200 in C2.', 'start': 5232.838, 'duration': 5.581}, {'end': 5242.62, 'text': 'So, C2 now points to the first element in the array.', 'start': 5238.94, 'duration': 3.68}, {'end': 5251.922, 'text': 'Now, we can use this variable C2 which is a character pointer just like C1 to read and write into the array.', 'start': 5244.041, 'duration': 7.881}, {'end': 5263.53, 'text': "So, if I write something like print C2 i, let's say we want to print C2 1, then the output will be l and we can even modify the array.", 'start': 5252.243, 'duration': 11.287}, {'end': 5269.355, 'text': "Let's say we want to modify the character at 0th index to a.", 'start': 5264.371, 'duration': 4.984}, {'end': 5272.698, 'text': 'So the string will be modified and will become this.', 'start': 5269.355, 'duration': 3.343}, {'end': 5280.124, 'text': 'Now when we write c to i for any position i, it is nothing but asterisk C two plus i.', 'start': 5272.718, 'duration': 7.406}, {'end': 5285.908, 'text': 'So C two is the base address, C two plus i will take you to the address of the ith element.', 'start': 5280.124, 'duration': 5.784}, {'end': 5289.33, 'text': "So in this case, let's say C two plus two will be 202.", 'start': 5286.328, 'duration': 3.002}, {'end': 5294.653, 'text': 'And if we put this asterisk operator, we are basically dereferencing and finding out the value.', 'start': 5289.33, 'duration': 5.323}, {'end': 5297.375, 'text': 'So these two syntaxes are alternate syntaxes.', 'start': 5295.013, 'duration': 2.362}, {'end': 5304.707, 'text': 'And even if it is and array name, we can write these two as substitutes for each other.', 'start': 5297.795, 'duration': 6.912}, {'end': 5313.572, 'text': 'So, this was all the similarity in how we actually use them, use arrays and pointers to read and write.', 'start': 5305.048, 'duration': 8.524}, {'end': 5315.413, 'text': 'Let us now look at the differences.', 'start': 5314.052, 'duration': 1.361}, {'end': 5319.782, 'text': 'We cannot modify an array with a statement like this.', 'start': 5315.953, 'duration': 3.829}, {'end': 5325.587, 'text': 'C2 equals C1 is valid but C1 equals C2 is not valid.', 'start': 5320.603, 'duration': 4.984}, {'end': 5327.288, 'text': 'It does not make sense.', 'start': 5326.388, 'duration': 0.9}, {'end': 5328.769, 'text': 'This will give you compilation error.', 'start': 5327.328, 'duration': 1.441}, {'end': 5332.192, 'text': 'We cannot even say C1 is equal to C1 plus 1.', 'start': 5328.79, 'duration': 3.402}, {'end': 5335.535, 'text': 'We cannot increment or decrement this variable c1.', 'start': 5332.192, 'duration': 3.343}, {'end': 5342.84, 'text': 'We can do it for c2 which is a pointer variable we can say c2++ so c2 now points to the next element.', 'start': 5336.135, 'duration': 6.705}, {'end': 5352.748, 'text': "With this statement here all that will happen is c2 will become 201 so instead of pointing here it's now pointing to this particular element e.", 'start': 5343.201, 'duration': 9.547}, {'end': 5358.893, 'text': "To traverse an array we run a loop and we use a local variable let's say i and increment it in the loop.", 'start': 5352.748, 'duration': 6.145}, {'end': 5365.579, 'text': 'If we have a pointer variable we can just keep on incrementing the pointer and we can traverse the list, we can traverse the array.', 'start': 5358.953, 'duration': 6.626}], 'summary': 'Arrays and pointers in c: arrays can be accessed using pointers, enabling reading, writing, and traversal with pointer arithmetic.', 'duration': 70.566, 'max_score': 5179.213, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M5179213.jpg'}], 'start': 4652.717, 'title': 'C programming concepts', 'summary': 'Covers character arrays, string manipulation, null termination, array-pointer similarities, memory allocation, and program execution. it includes practical examples and emphasizes the importance of concepts in c programming.', 'chapters': [{'end': 4877.162, 'start': 4652.717, 'title': 'Working with character arrays in c', 'summary': 'Discusses the concept of character arrays in c, including their importance in handling strings, the need for additional space, and the use of character arrays for efficient string manipulation and operations.', 'duration': 224.445, 'highlights': ['Character arrays in C are crucial for working with strings, such as storing names, phrases, and sentences, and performing operations on strings like modifying, copying, concatenating, and finding properties, like length. importance of character arrays in handling strings', 'The size of a character array for storing a string should be greater than or equal to the number of characters in the string plus one, to account for the null character that indicates the end of the string. requirement for the size of character arrays for string storage', 'Explanation of the need for additional space in character arrays to accommodate the null character at the end of the string, ensuring accurate string manipulation and operations. importance of additional space for null character in character arrays']}, {'end': 5154.282, 'start': 4877.642, 'title': 'C string manipulation', 'summary': 'Discusses the importance of null termination in c string manipulation, highlighting how functions expect strings to be null terminated and the implications of not null terminating strings, demonstrated through code examples. it also emphasizes the different ways of initializing character arrays.', 'duration': 276.64, 'highlights': ['The importance of null termination in C string manipulation is emphasized, as all functions expect strings to be null terminated, demonstrated through code examples.', 'The implications of not null terminating strings are highlighted, showcasing undefined behavior when print functions encounter non-null terminated strings.', 'Different ways of initializing character arrays are explained, including the use of string literals and explicit null termination.']}, {'end': 5642.891, 'start': 5154.282, 'title': 'Arrays and pointers usage', 'summary': 'Explains the similarities and differences between arrays and pointers, including their usage, storage in memory, and how they are passed to functions. it also covers the concept of passing arrays to functions by reference and simulates a program to understand the memory allocation and concept of string constants and constant pointers.', 'duration': 488.609, 'highlights': ['Arrays and pointers are used in similar manner, with arrays being stored in contiguous memory blocks and pointers being stored in four bytes, allowing them to be used interchangeably for reading and writing into the array. Arrays and pointers can be used interchangeably for reading and writing into the array, as the name of the array returns the address of the first element, enabling operations like assignment, reading, and modification using pointer variables.', 'Arrays cannot be modified with certain operations like C1 equals C1 plus 1, and incrementing or decrementing the array variable C1, whereas pointer variables like C2 can be incremented or decremented to point to the next element in the array. Arrays cannot be modified with certain operations like C1 equals C1 plus 1, and incrementing or decrementing the array variable C1, whereas pointer variables like C2 can be incremented or decremented to point to the next element in the array.', 'Arrays are always passed to functions by reference, passing only the base address of the array in a pointer variable and avoiding the passing of a whole copy of the array. Arrays are always passed to functions by reference, passing only the base address of the array in a pointer variable and avoiding the passing of a whole copy of the array, as it is inefficient due to the large size of arrays.']}, {'end': 6019.098, 'start': 5643.271, 'title': 'Memory allocation in program execution', 'summary': 'Explains the division of memory into code segment, global variables, and stack, illustrating the allocation and usage of memory during program execution, with practical examples and detailed explanations.', 'duration': 375.827, 'highlights': ['The memory for program execution is divided into code segment, global variables, and stack, with stack frame allocation for each function call. Illustrates the division of memory and stack frame allocation for function calls, providing a clear understanding of memory usage during program execution.', 'Local variables of a function are stored in the stack frame of the function, with practical examples of memory allocation for variables. Explains the allocation of local variables in the stack frame, using a character array as an example to demonstrate memory allocation for variables.', 'The concept of pointer variables and their memory allocation is explained, emphasizing the difference in scope between local variables in different functions. Provides a detailed explanation of pointer variables and their memory allocation, highlighting the distinction in scope between local variables in different functions.', 'The execution of a program is demonstrated with practical examples, including the process of function call execution and the manipulation of pointer variables. Demonstrates the execution of a program with practical examples, including the process of function call execution and the manipulation of pointer variables to enhance understanding.']}], 'duration': 1366.381, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M4652717.jpg', 'highlights': ['Character arrays in C are crucial for working with strings, such as storing names, phrases, and sentences, and performing operations on strings like modifying, copying, concatenating, and finding properties, like length.', 'The size of a character array for storing a string should be greater than or equal to the number of characters in the string plus one, to account for the null character that indicates the end of the string.', 'The importance of null termination in C string manipulation is emphasized, as all functions expect strings to be null terminated, demonstrated through code examples.', 'Arrays and pointers can be used interchangeably for reading and writing into the array, as the name of the array returns the address of the first element, enabling operations like assignment, reading, and modification using pointer variables.', 'Arrays are always passed to functions by reference, passing only the base address of the array in a pointer variable and avoiding the passing of a whole copy of the array, as it is inefficient due to the large size of arrays.', 'The memory for program execution is divided into code segment, global variables, and stack, with stack frame allocation for each function call. Illustrates the division of memory and stack frame allocation for function calls, providing a clear understanding of memory usage during program execution.', 'Local variables of a function are stored in the stack frame of the function, with practical examples of memory allocation for variables. Explains the allocation of local variables in the stack frame, using a character array as an example to demonstrate memory allocation for variables.', 'The execution of a program is demonstrated with practical examples, including the process of function call execution and the manipulation of pointer variables. Demonstrates the execution of a program with practical examples, including the process of function call execution and the manipulation of pointer variables to enhance understanding.']}, {'end': 7722.173, 'segs': [{'end': 6556.278, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 6411.094, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 6413.515, 'text': 'we cannot say a equal p.', 'start': 6411.094, 'duration': 2.421}, {'end': 6416.496, 'text': 'this will give you compilation error.', 'start': 6413.515, 'duration': 2.981}, {'end': 6420.817, 'text': 'so this is pretty much how we would use pointers with one-dimensional arrays.', 'start': 6416.496, 'duration': 4.321}, {'end': 6424.358, 'text': "let's now say we want to create a two-dimensional array.", 'start': 6420.817, 'duration': 3.541}, {'end': 6429.62, 'text': 'i will declare a two-dimensional array of integers named p, something like this.', 'start': 6424.358, 'duration': 5.262}, {'end': 6435.545, 'text': 'Now what we are doing here is we are creating array of array.', 'start': 6431.536, 'duration': 4.009}, {'end': 6440.256, 'text': 'We are creating two one-dimensional arrays of three elements each.', 'start': 6436.167, 'duration': 4.089}, {'end': 6447.639, 'text': 'This time b0 and b1 are both one-dimensional arrays of three integers each.', 'start': 6441.556, 'duration': 6.083}, {'end': 6455.343, 'text': 'A one-dimensional array of three integers would be 12 bytes if each integer is 4 bytes in size.', 'start': 6448.4, 'duration': 6.943}, {'end': 6468.077, 'text': 'So, if I have to show this in memory, the first block of 12 bytes starting address 400 will be B0 and the next block of 12 bytes,', 'start': 6455.843, 'duration': 12.234}, {'end': 6474.541, 'text': 'starting address 412, will be B1, As we had said.', 'start': 6468.077, 'duration': 6.464}, {'end': 6479.203, 'text': 'name of the array returns a pointer to the first element in the array.', 'start': 6474.541, 'duration': 4.662}, {'end': 6482.966, 'text': 'This time, each element is not an integer.', 'start': 6479.964, 'duration': 3.002}, {'end': 6486.988, 'text': 'Each element is a one-dimensional array of three integers.', 'start': 6483.266, 'duration': 3.722}, {'end': 6494.872, 'text': 'So if I would write a statement like this int asterisk, p, equal b, then this will give me a compilation error,', 'start': 6487.768, 'duration': 7.104}, {'end': 6500.916, 'text': 'because b will return a pointer to 1d array of three integers and not just a pointer to integer.', 'start': 6494.872, 'duration': 6.044}, {'end': 6505.86, 'text': 'The type of a pointer matters not when you have to read the address.', 'start': 6501.576, 'duration': 4.284}, {'end': 6510.704, 'text': 'It matters when you dereference or when you perform pointer arithmetic.', 'start': 6506.54, 'duration': 4.164}, {'end': 6513.206, 'text': "It's really important that we understand this.", 'start': 6511.505, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 6523.255, 'text': "We can define a pointer to 1d array of 3 integers like this and now if I'll equate this with p, this is alright.", 'start': 6513.807, 'duration': 9.448}, {'end': 6526.991, 'text': 'equate b with p.', 'start': 6524.73, 'duration': 2.261}, {'end': 6534.272, 'text': 'This time, if I would print just p which is same as printing address of b0, this will be 400.', 'start': 6526.991, 'duration': 7.281}, {'end': 6547.215, 'text': 'If I will print asterisk b which will be same as b0, then b0 this time is variable name for a one-dimensional array of three integers.', 'start': 6534.272, 'duration': 12.943}, {'end': 6556.278, 'text': 'So, just using the name b0 will return us pointer to the first integer in b0 which will be accessed as b00.', 'start': 6547.995, 'duration': 8.283}], 'summary': 'Explains usage of pointers with one and two-dimensional arrays, including memory allocation and pointer types.', 'duration': 145.184, 'max_score': 6411.094, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M6411094.jpg'}, {'end': 6884.126, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6825, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 6832.133, 'text': 'So B0 returns pointer to integer, we will get a pointer to this integer at address 400.', 'start': 6825, 'duration': 7.133}, {'end': 6839.759, 'text': 'Now what will happen if you will add 1 to an integer pointer? It will take you 4 bytes ahead to the next integer.', 'start': 6832.133, 'duration': 7.626}, {'end': 6842.482, 'text': 'It will return your pointer to the next integer.', 'start': 6839.799, 'duration': 2.683}, {'end': 6847.586, 'text': 'So we will get a pointer to this integer at address 404.', 'start': 6842.522, 'duration': 5.064}, {'end': 6856.433, 'text': 'Asterisk b plus 1 is basically ampersand b01 and with this final dereferencing we can get rid of this ampersand.', 'start': 6847.586, 'duration': 8.847}, {'end': 6869.399, 'text': 'So the overall expression will be b01, which is 3 for a two-dimensional array, bij, where b is name for my two-dimensional array,', 'start': 6856.493, 'duration': 12.906}, {'end': 6884.126, 'text': 'and i and j are some indices can be written as asterisk of bi plus j, and once again, bi can be written as asterisk of b plus i,', 'start': 6869.399, 'duration': 14.727}], 'summary': 'Adding 1 to an integer pointer moves it 4 bytes ahead to the next integer, resulting in a pointer at address 404.', 'duration': 59.126, 'max_score': 6825, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M6825000.jpg'}, {'end': 7385.972, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7337.699, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 7345.343, 'text': 'By now, if you clearly understand how all the pointer arithmetic and dereferencing is happening in these expressions,', 'start': 7337.699, 'duration': 7.644}, {'end': 7351.246, 'text': "then it's not very difficult to understand how things will be for, say, a three-dimensional array.", 'start': 7345.343, 'duration': 5.903}, {'end': 7356.109, 'text': "Now, let's say we have created a three-dimensional array named C.", 'start': 7352.287, 'duration': 3.822}, {'end': 7360.352, 'text': 'we have an array of 3 x 2 x 2.', 'start': 7356.969, 'duration': 3.383}, {'end': 7366.497, 'text': 'a three-dimensional array is basically an array or collection of two-dimensional arrays.', 'start': 7360.352, 'duration': 6.145}, {'end': 7376.386, 'text': 'so if I have to show C in memory, I will show it something like this I have assumed that the starting address of C is byte addressed 800..', 'start': 7366.497, 'duration': 9.889}, {'end': 7382.47, 'text': 'The first 16 bytes starting address 800 is my first two-dimensional array.', 'start': 7376.386, 'duration': 6.084}, {'end': 7385.972, 'text': 'I am assuming that each integer will take 4 bytes.', 'start': 7383.31, 'duration': 2.662}], 'summary': 'Understanding pointer arithmetic helps in visualizing multi-dimensional arrays in memory.', 'duration': 48.273, 'max_score': 7337.699, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M7337699.jpg'}, {'end': 7710.821, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7679.191, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 7685.498, 'text': 'all of these are pointers and if I would just use %d address would be printed.', 'start': 7679.191, 'duration': 6.307}, {'end': 7691.785, 'text': "When I'm running this code as you can see the output for all these four expressions is same.", 'start': 7686.039, 'duration': 5.746}, {'end': 7700.113, 'text': 'Any guesses for what will be the output for this printf statement? This expression is nothing but C001.', 'start': 7693.007, 'duration': 7.106}, {'end': 7710.821, 'text': 'The output for first printf is different because this is a different run of the program and in each run the assigned address would change.', 'start': 7700.793, 'duration': 10.028}], 'summary': 'Using %d address would be printed, output for all four expressions is same, different runs produce different addresses.', 'duration': 31.63, 'max_score': 7679.191, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M7679191.jpg'}], 'start': 6019.098, 'title': 'Pointers and arrays in c', 'summary': 'Covers the storage of string literals in memory, distinguishing between constant and modifiable storage, demonstrates modifying data in character arrays using pointers, explains the concepts of pointers and multi-dimensional arrays, discusses the organization of multi-dimensional arrays in memory, demonstrates the use of pointers to access elements in the array, explains working with multi-dimensional arrays and pointers, highlights pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, and explains the organization of one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays in memory with practical examples and a three-dimensional array in a c program.', 'chapters': [{'end': 6157.433, 'start': 6019.098, 'title': 'Understanding pointers in c', 'summary': 'Explains the storage of string literals in memory, distinguishing between constant and modifiable storage, and demonstrates how to modify data in character arrays using pointers in c.', 'duration': 138.335, 'highlights': ['The storage of string literals in memory is detailed, with a distinction made between the stack and the text segment, and the implications of each storage method are explained.', 'The ability to modify data in a character array using a pointer is demonstrated, showcasing the process of changing characters in the array and printing the modified result.', 'The concept of using a const character pointer to enforce read-only behavior is presented, with a demonstration of how it restricts writing to the array while allowing reading, resulting in a compilation error when attempting to write.']}, {'end': 6474.541, 'start': 6158.755, 'title': 'Understanding pointers and multi-dimensional arrays', 'summary': 'Discusses the concepts of pointers and multi-dimensional arrays, explaining the organization of multi-dimensional arrays in memory and how pointers can be used to access elements in the array, with examples and explanations of pointer arithmetic and dereferencing.', 'duration': 315.786, 'highlights': ["The chapter discusses how to work with multi-dimensional arrays using pointers, explaining how multi-dimensional arrays are organized in computer's memory. The chapter explains how multi-dimensional arrays are organized in the computer's memory, illustrating the concept with the example of a two-dimensional array of integers and its organization in memory.", 'The chapter explains the use of pointers with one-dimensional arrays, demonstrating how to use the array name as a pointer for dereferencing and arithmetic. The chapter elaborates on using the name of the array as a pointer for dereferencing and arithmetic, clarifying that it is not the same as a pointer variable and providing examples of accessing elements in a one-dimensional array using pointers.', 'The chapter illustrates pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, providing examples of accessing elements in an array using pointer arithmetic. The chapter provides examples of pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, demonstrating how to access elements in an array using pointer arithmetic and explaining the outcomes of different pointer operations.']}, {'end': 6975.253, 'start': 6474.541, 'title': 'Working with multi-dimensional arrays', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of working with multi-dimensional arrays and pointers, including the use of pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, with highlighted examples and explanations.', 'duration': 500.712, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the concept of working with multi-dimensional arrays and pointers, including the use of pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, with highlighted examples and explanations.', 'The type of a pointer matters when dereferencing or performing pointer arithmetic, and understanding this is crucial.', "Explains the concept of pointer arithmetic by demonstrating the output of expressions like 'b plus 1', 'asterisk b plus 1', and 'asterisk b plus 1 plus 2'.", 'Emphasizes the importance of understanding expressions involving pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, and encourages practical implementation of the concepts.', 'Introduces the idea of working with higher dimensions, such as three-dimensional arrays, using pointers, and mentions the upcoming discussion on passing multi-dimensional arrays as arguments to functions.']}, {'end': 7722.173, 'start': 6975.773, 'title': 'Array organization in memory', 'summary': 'Explains how one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays are organized in memory, demonstrating pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, and concluding with a practical example of a three-dimensional array in a c program.', 'duration': 746.4, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains how one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays are organized in memory It details the organization of one-dimensional array B and two-dimensional array C in memory, highlighting the starting addresses and the layout of the arrays.', 'Demonstrating pointer arithmetic and dereferencing It demonstrates pointer arithmetic and dereferencing in the context of accessing elements in arrays, showcasing how pointers to elements are obtained and used.', 'Practical example of a three-dimensional array in a C program It provides a practical example of a three-dimensional array in a C program, showcasing the creation and printing of the array using pointers.']}], 'duration': 1703.075, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M6019098.jpg', 'highlights': ['The storage of string literals in memory is detailed, with a distinction made between the stack and the text segment, and the implications of each storage method are explained.', 'The ability to modify data in a character array using a pointer is demonstrated, showcasing the process of changing characters in the array and printing the modified result.', "The chapter discusses how to work with multi-dimensional arrays using pointers, explaining how multi-dimensional arrays are organized in computer's memory.", 'The chapter explains the use of pointers with one-dimensional arrays, demonstrating how to use the array name as a pointer for dereferencing and arithmetic.', 'The chapter illustrates pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, providing examples of accessing elements in an array using pointer arithmetic.', 'The chapter explains the concept of working with multi-dimensional arrays and pointers, including the use of pointer arithmetic and dereferencing, with highlighted examples and explanations.', 'The chapter explains how one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays are organized in memory It details the organization of one-dimensional array B and two-dimensional array C in memory, highlighting the starting addresses and the layout of the arrays.', 'Practical example of a three-dimensional array in a C program It provides a practical example of a three-dimensional array in a C program, showcasing the creation and printing of the array using pointers.']}, {'end': 8962.642, 'segs': [{'end': 8046.697, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8017.094, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 8022.637, 'text': 'Let us first understand how these three segments of the memory are used when a program executes.', 'start': 8017.094, 'duration': 5.543}, {'end': 8025.218, 'text': 'I have a simple C program here.', 'start': 8023.497, 'duration': 1.721}, {'end': 8029.22, 'text': 'We have a function square that gives me the square of a number.', 'start': 8025.878, 'duration': 3.342}, {'end': 8040.571, 'text': 'We have another function, square of sum, that is given two arguments, x and y, and it returns us the square of x plus y and in the main method,', 'start': 8030.04, 'duration': 10.531}, {'end': 8046.697, 'text': "I'm just calling this function square of sum, passing it two arguments a and b.", 'start': 8040.571, 'duration': 6.126}], 'summary': 'Exploring memory segments in program execution with a simple c program.', 'duration': 29.603, 'max_score': 8017.094, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M8017094.jpg'}, {'end': 8173.427, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8147.412, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 8151.594, 'text': 'I have drawn this play and pause button here in case you do not understand.', 'start': 8147.412, 'duration': 4.182}, {'end': 8154.295, 'text': 'Okay, so this total is a global variable.', 'start': 8152.194, 'duration': 2.101}, {'end': 8162.059, 'text': "It's it's here in this section, global variable because it is not declared declared inside a function, we can access it anywhere.", 'start': 8154.436, 'duration': 7.623}, {'end': 8167.202, 'text': 'And then we go to this particular statement where we call square of sum and square of sum is calling square.', 'start': 8162.44, 'duration': 4.762}, {'end': 8169.163, 'text': 'So right now this is our call stack.', 'start': 8167.582, 'duration': 1.581}, {'end': 8173.427, 'text': 'this program may not be the best way to implement this logic.', 'start': 8170.646, 'duration': 2.781}], 'summary': 'The program utilizes a global variable and call stack; however, it may not be the best implementation.', 'duration': 26.015, 'max_score': 8147.412, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M8147412.jpg'}, {'end': 8780.58, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8735.374, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 8740.378, 'text': 'We allocated one more block and we modified the address in P to point to this block.', 'start': 8735.374, 'duration': 5.004}, {'end': 8743.18, 'text': 'The previous block will still sit in the heap.', 'start': 8740.478, 'duration': 2.702}, {'end': 8745.321, 'text': 'This memory we are still consuming.', 'start': 8743.54, 'duration': 1.781}, {'end': 8747.603, 'text': 'It will not be cleared off automatically.', 'start': 8745.721, 'duration': 1.882}, {'end': 8750.046, 'text': 'At any point in our program.', 'start': 8748.263, 'duration': 1.783}, {'end': 8757.496, 'text': 'if we are done using some particular block of memory which is dynamically allocated using malloc, we also need to clear it,', 'start': 8750.046, 'duration': 7.45}, {'end': 8761.041, 'text': 'because it is unnecessary consumption of memory, which is an important resource.', 'start': 8757.496, 'duration': 3.545}, {'end': 8768.414, 'text': 'So what we should have done here is that once we were done using this particular block of memory at 200,', 'start': 8761.441, 'duration': 6.973}, {'end': 8771.215, 'text': 'we should have made a call to the function free.', 'start': 8768.414, 'duration': 2.801}, {'end': 8780.58, 'text': 'Any memory which is allocated using malloc is cleared off by calling free and to free we pass the pointer to the starting address of the memory block.', 'start': 8771.915, 'duration': 8.665}], 'summary': 'Allocated 1 more block, modified p address, and discussed clearing memory using free.', 'duration': 45.206, 'max_score': 8735.374, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M8735374.jpg'}, {'end': 8823.737, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8797.188, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 8804.81, 'text': 'So, if you see in terms of the scope of the variable, anything allocated on the heap is not automatically deallocated when the function completes,', 'start': 8797.188, 'duration': 7.622}, {'end': 8807.871, 'text': 'like on the stack, and it does not live.', 'start': 8804.81, 'duration': 3.061}, {'end': 8812.472, 'text': 'it does not need to live for the whole lifetime of the application, like a global variable.', 'start': 8807.871, 'duration': 4.601}, {'end': 8817.354, 'text': 'We can control when to free anything on the heap, when to deallocate anything on the heap.', 'start': 8812.773, 'duration': 4.581}, {'end': 8823.737, 'text': "If we wanted to store an array on the heap, like, let's say, we wanted to store an integer array,", 'start': 8818.575, 'duration': 5.162}], 'summary': 'Heap-allocated variables need manual deallocation; control array storage on heap', 'duration': 26.549, 'max_score': 8797.188, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M8797188.jpg'}], 'start': 7723.134, 'title': 'Memory management and dynamic arrays', 'summary': 'Covers passing multi-dimensional arrays, memory architecture, stack and heap memory management, dynamic memory allocation in c and c++, with emphasis on pointer types, memory limitations, and usage of malloc and free functions.', 'chapters': [{'end': 7917.368, 'start': 7723.134, 'title': 'Passing multi-dimensional arrays', 'summary': 'Discusses passing multi-dimensional arrays as function arguments, explaining the syntax and considerations for one, two, and three-dimensional arrays, highlighting the importance of understanding pointer types. it emphasizes that for any multi-dimensional array except the first dimension, all other dimensions will be enforced.', 'duration': 194.234, 'highlights': ['The syntax for passing multi-dimensional arrays as function arguments is explained, emphasizing that a fresh copy of the array is not created for a function call, only a reference to it in the form of a pointer is created.', 'The significance of understanding pointer types for different dimensions of multi-dimensional arrays is highlighted, explaining the enforcement of dimensions and common mistakes to avoid.', 'Explanation of the correct syntax for passing two-dimensional and three-dimensional arrays as function arguments is provided, emphasizing the enforcement of dimensions and the implications for passing different array types.']}, {'end': 8264.534, 'start': 7919.548, 'title': 'Understanding memory architecture and dynamic memory', 'summary': "Discusses the architecture of memory, the four segments of memory, the allocation of memory for program execution, and the concept of stack frames in a program's call stack.", 'duration': 344.986, 'highlights': ['The memory is divided into four segments: text segment for instructions, a section for static or global variables, a segment for function call information and local variables, and the heap for dynamic memory. Provides an overview of the four segments of memory and their respective purposes.', "Explains the usage of stack frames in a program's call stack, including the allocation of memory for local variables, arguments, and the mechanism for function execution and return. Details the allocation and management of memory within a program's call stack.", 'Emphasizes the importance of assigning a variable as global only if it is needed at multiple places in multiple functions and for the whole lifetime of the program to avoid memory wastage. Highlights the significance of efficient memory usage by declaring variables as global only when necessary.']}, {'end': 8572.546, 'start': 8265.013, 'title': 'Memory management in programs', 'summary': 'Discusses the limitations of stack memory, such as the fixed size and inability to request more memory, and the flexibility of heap memory, which can grow and be controlled by the programmer, along with the key functions and operators used for dynamic memory allocation in c and c++.', 'duration': 307.533, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the limitations of stack memory, such as the fixed size of 1 MB, leading to stack overflow if exceeded, and the inability to request more memory during runtime, potentially causing program crashes. Stack memory has a fixed size of 1 MB, and exceeding this can lead to stack overflow and program crashes.', "It highlights the flexibility of heap memory, which can vary in size during the application's lifetime and allows the programmer to control memory allocation and deallocation, unlike stack memory. Heap memory is flexible in size and allows the programmer to control memory allocation and deallocation.", 'The chapter introduces the key functions and operators for dynamic memory allocation in C and C++, including malloc, calloc, realloc, free, new, and delete, providing insights into their usage. The key functions and operators for dynamic memory allocation in C and C++ are malloc, calloc, realloc, free, new, and delete.']}, {'end': 8962.642, 'start': 8573.026, 'title': 'Dynamic memory allocation', 'summary': 'Discusses dynamic memory allocation in c and c++, covering the stack and heap memory allocation, usage of malloc and free functions, error handling, and the differences between c and c++ dynamic memory allocation. it emphasizes the responsibility of the programmer to deallocate memory on the heap and the type safety of new and delete operators.', 'duration': 389.616, 'highlights': ['Dynamic memory allocation in C and C++ involves stack and heap memory allocation, where the size of the stack is decided by the operating system and compiler, and heap allocation requires using functions like malloc in C and new in C++. ', 'The malloc function allocates memory on the heap, and when specifying the size of an integer, it typically reserves 4 bytes, returning a pointer to the starting address of the allocated block. Size of an integer: 4 bytes', "Deallocating memory on the heap is the responsibility of the programmer, and it's essential to use the free function to clear dynamically allocated memory, preventing unnecessary consumption of memory. ", 'In C++, dynamic memory allocation involves using the new and delete operators, providing a type-safe approach without the need for type castings like in C. ', 'Error handling is crucial in dynamic memory allocation, as the malloc function returns null when unable to allocate memory on the heap, requiring appropriate code handling. ']}], 'duration': 1239.508, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M7723134.jpg', 'highlights': ['The significance of understanding pointer types for different dimensions of multi-dimensional arrays is highlighted, explaining the enforcement of dimensions and common mistakes to avoid.', "Explains the usage of stack frames in a program's call stack, including the allocation of memory for local variables, arguments, and the mechanism for function execution and return.", 'The chapter explains the limitations of stack memory, such as the fixed size of 1 MB, leading to stack overflow if exceeded, and the inability to request more memory during runtime, potentially causing program crashes.', 'The chapter introduces the key functions and operators for dynamic memory allocation in C and C++, including malloc, calloc, realloc, free, new, and delete, providing insights into their usage.', 'Dynamic memory allocation in C and C++ involves stack and heap memory allocation, where the size of the stack is decided by the operating system and compiler, and heap allocation requires using functions like malloc in C and new in C++.', "Deallocating memory on the heap is the responsibility of the programmer, and it's essential to use the free function to clear dynamically allocated memory, preventing unnecessary consumption of memory.", 'Error handling is crucial in dynamic memory allocation, as the malloc function returns null when unable to allocate memory on the heap, requiring appropriate code handling.']}, {'end': 10000.894, 'segs': [{'end': 9271.734, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9246.431, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 9254.298, 'text': 'Now how do we fill in data here? If you see malloc returns a void pointer and void pointer as such cannot be dereferenced.', 'start': 9246.431, 'duration': 7.867}, {'end': 9259.603, 'text': 'You cannot write a statement something like asterisk p is equal to 2.', 'start': 9254.859, 'duration': 4.744}, {'end': 9260.484, 'text': 'This is incorrect.', 'start': 9259.603, 'duration': 0.881}, {'end': 9262.806, 'text': 'You cannot dereference a void pointer.', 'start': 9260.644, 'duration': 2.162}, {'end': 9271.734, 'text': 'void pointer, in fact, is only used as a generic pointer type, which is normally typecasted into a pointer type of a particular data type,', 'start': 9262.866, 'duration': 8.868}], 'summary': 'Explains the limitations of dereferencing a void pointer and its usage as a generic pointer type.', 'duration': 25.303, 'max_score': 9246.431, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M9246431.jpg'}, {'end': 9551.217, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 9413.274, 'weight': 0.813, 'content': [{'end': 9415.054, 'text': 'With calloc, we would say something like this.', 'start': 9413.274, 'duration': 1.78}, {'end': 9421.136, 'text': 'The first argument is how many units of the data type you want, or the number of elements.', 'start': 9415.755, 'duration': 5.381}, {'end': 9424.818, 'text': 'And the second argument is the size of data type in bytes.', 'start': 9421.857, 'duration': 2.961}, {'end': 9427.959, 'text': 'There is one more difference between malloc and calloc.', 'start': 9425.658, 'duration': 2.301}, {'end': 9434.021, 'text': 'When malloc allocate some amount of memory, it does not initialize the bytes with any value.', 'start': 9428.439, 'duration': 5.582}, {'end': 9440.864, 'text': 'So if you do not fill in any value into these addresses allocated by malloc, you would have some garbage there.', 'start': 9434.602, 'duration': 6.262}, {'end': 9448.107, 'text': 'But if you allocate memory through calloc, calloc sets all byte positions with value zero.', 'start': 9441.544, 'duration': 6.563}, {'end': 9452.929, 'text': 'So it also initializes the memory that it allocates to zero.', 'start': 9448.627, 'duration': 4.302}, {'end': 9458.568, 'text': 'The third function that we want to talk about is realloc.', 'start': 9454.827, 'duration': 3.741}, {'end': 9467.31, 'text': 'If you have a block of memory, dynamically allocated block of memory, and if you want to change the size of this block of memory,', 'start': 9459.668, 'duration': 7.642}, {'end': 9468.93, 'text': 'then you can use realloc.', 'start': 9467.31, 'duration': 1.62}, {'end': 9474.591, 'text': 'The definition or the signature of this particular function is, this function takes two arguments.', 'start': 9469.45, 'duration': 5.141}, {'end': 9484.854, 'text': 'The first argument is pointed to the starting address of the existing block and the second argument is the size of the new block.', 'start': 9474.991, 'duration': 9.863}, {'end': 9488.247, 'text': 'There can be a couple of cases in realloc.', 'start': 9486.206, 'duration': 2.041}, {'end': 9494.051, 'text': 'The size of the new block that we want may be larger than the size of the previous block.', 'start': 9488.808, 'duration': 5.243}, {'end': 9503.317, 'text': 'In that case, machine may create an entirely new block and copy the previous data whatever bytes was written in the previous block into the new block.', 'start': 9494.652, 'duration': 8.665}, {'end': 9510.963, 'text': 'If contiguous or consecutive memory is already available with the existing block, the existing block may also be extended.', 'start': 9503.858, 'duration': 7.105}, {'end': 9515.986, 'text': 'Let us now look at some code examples and see what we can do with these three functions.', 'start': 9511.723, 'duration': 4.263}, {'end': 9520.537, 'text': 'and we will discuss the function free in our code itself.', 'start': 9516.607, 'duration': 3.93}, {'end': 9527.622, 'text': "I'll write some C code and look at some of the use cases in which we can use dynamic memory allocation.", 'start': 9522.419, 'duration': 5.203}, {'end': 9541.411, 'text': 'The first use case is let us say we want to declare an array and we want to first ask the user the size of the array and then we want to declare an array exactly of this particular size entered by the user.', 'start': 9528.463, 'duration': 12.948}, {'end': 9551.217, 'text': "So let's say I have a variable n and I write a print statement like enter size of array and then I input this number n from the console.", 'start': 9541.811, 'duration': 9.406}], 'summary': 'Calloc initializes memory with 0; realloc changes memory size; discusses use cases.', 'duration': 137.943, 'max_score': 9413.274, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M9413274.jpg'}, {'end': 9515.986, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9486.206, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 9488.247, 'text': 'There can be a couple of cases in realloc.', 'start': 9486.206, 'duration': 2.041}, {'end': 9494.051, 'text': 'The size of the new block that we want may be larger than the size of the previous block.', 'start': 9488.808, 'duration': 5.243}, {'end': 9503.317, 'text': 'In that case, machine may create an entirely new block and copy the previous data whatever bytes was written in the previous block into the new block.', 'start': 9494.652, 'duration': 8.665}, {'end': 9510.963, 'text': 'If contiguous or consecutive memory is already available with the existing block, the existing block may also be extended.', 'start': 9503.858, 'duration': 7.105}, {'end': 9515.986, 'text': 'Let us now look at some code examples and see what we can do with these three functions.', 'start': 9511.723, 'duration': 4.263}], 'summary': 'Reallocation may create entirely new block, copy previous data, or extend existing block for contiguous memory.', 'duration': 29.78, 'max_score': 9486.206, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M9486206.jpg'}, {'end': 9633.019, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9601.085, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 9603.466, 'text': 'into the elements of this dynamically allocated array.', 'start': 9601.085, 'duration': 2.381}, {'end': 9609.487, 'text': "Let's say we want to put data something like first element is one and the second element is two and so on.", 'start': 9604.026, 'duration': 5.461}, {'end': 9615.849, 'text': "So we'll write something like AI is equal to i plus one, we can print the elements in the array.", 'start': 9610.408, 'duration': 5.441}, {'end': 9620.411, 'text': "Let's say we want to pick up size of array as 10.", 'start': 9616.549, 'duration': 3.862}, {'end': 9626.592, 'text': 'Okay, so the output is as expected, we have 10 elements from one to 10.', 'start': 9620.411, 'duration': 6.181}, {'end': 9633.019, 'text': "If I give size of array as let's say 25, Then this is what we get.", 'start': 9626.592, 'duration': 6.427}], 'summary': 'Demonstrated dynamic array with 10 and 25 elements.', 'duration': 31.934, 'max_score': 9601.085, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M9601085.jpg'}, {'end': 9919.103, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9894.046, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 9901.771, 'text': "I'll print the previous block address stored in A and the new address stored in B and I'll also print all the 2n elements in B now.", 'start': 9894.046, 'duration': 7.725}, {'end': 9906.675, 'text': "And I'll print each element in the array B in one single line.", 'start': 9902.732, 'duration': 3.943}, {'end': 9908.996, 'text': "Let's say size of the array is 5 again.", 'start': 9907.255, 'duration': 1.741}, {'end': 9915.901, 'text': 'Okay, so the previous block address is 9920128 and if you see the new address is also same.', 'start': 9909.577, 'duration': 6.324}, {'end': 9919.103, 'text': 'So, it was possible to extend the previous block only.', 'start': 9916.441, 'duration': 2.662}], 'summary': 'Prints previous and new block addresses and elements in array b. new address is same as previous. array size: 5.', 'duration': 25.057, 'max_score': 9894.046, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M9894046.jpg'}, {'end': 9968.654, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9940.095, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 9943.016, 'text': "In fact, they're there already, the rest three are D allocated.", 'start': 9940.095, 'duration': 2.921}, {'end': 9946.438, 'text': 'When we divide five by two, we take only the integral part.', 'start': 9943.697, 'duration': 2.741}, {'end': 9949.28, 'text': 'So we kind of D allocate the space for three elements here.', 'start': 9946.858, 'duration': 2.422}, {'end': 9957.706, 'text': 'In fact, if we give the size to be 0 here, all that will happen is that the complete block for A will be deallocated.', 'start': 9950.2, 'duration': 7.506}, {'end': 9963.95, 'text': 'So, this statement will be equivalent to using free upon A.', 'start': 9958.186, 'duration': 5.764}, {'end': 9968.654, 'text': 'In most cases, we will put the return address by realloc into the same integer pointer.', 'start': 9963.95, 'duration': 4.704}], 'summary': 'Allocating and deallocating memory for arrays and pointers.', 'duration': 28.559, 'max_score': 9940.095, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M9940095.jpg'}], 'start': 8964.429, 'title': 'Dynamic memory allocation in c', 'summary': 'Covers the library functions malloc, calloc, and realloc for dynamic memory allocation in c, explaining their signatures and usage, with a focus on using malloc to allocate memory for data types and the best practice for calculating the size of the memory block needed. it also explains the differences and use cases of malloc, calloc, and realloc, emphasizing the need for typecasting void pointers and the initialization behavior of calloc, concluding with practical code examples and the function free. additionally, it covers the use of malloc and calloc to allocate memory, the differences between them, the use of free to deallocate memory, and the behavior of realloc to modify the size of a memory block.', 'chapters': [{'end': 9246.431, 'start': 8964.429, 'title': 'Dynamic memory allocation in c', 'summary': 'Covers the library functions malloc, calloc, and realloc for dynamic memory allocation in c, explaining their signatures and usage, with a focus on using malloc to allocate memory for data types and the best practice for calculating the size of the memory block needed.', 'duration': 282.002, 'highlights': ['Malloc returns a void pointer that gives us the address of the first byte in the allocated block of memory. Malloc returns a void pointer that provides the starting address of the allocated memory block, facilitating storage of data, and allowing dynamic memory allocation for different data types and sizes.', 'Using sizeof and the number of units needed to calculate the total memory block size when using malloc for data types, instead of manually specifying the size, is a best practice. It is best practice to use sizeof and the number of units needed to calculate the total memory block size when using malloc for data types, ensuring portability across different compilers and providing a flexible approach for memory allocation.', 'Explaining the need to calculate the size of the memory block needed for storing data, and emphasizing the best practice of using sizeof and the number of units when using malloc for different data types and sizes. The importance of calculating the size of the memory block needed for storing data is explained, with an emphasis on using sizeof and the number of units when using malloc for different data types and sizes, promoting a structured and adaptable approach to memory allocation.']}, {'end': 9527.622, 'start': 9246.431, 'title': 'Dynamic memory allocation in c', 'summary': 'Explains dynamic memory allocation in c, covering concepts such as malloc, calloc, and realloc with their differences and use cases, emphasizing the need for typecasting void pointers and the initialization behavior of calloc, concluding with practical code examples and the function free.', 'duration': 281.191, 'highlights': ['malloc returns a void pointer and must be typecasted into a pointer of the required data type for usage, highlighting the need for typecasting void pointers before dereferencing.', 'calloc takes two arguments - the number of elements of a specific data type and the size of the data type, and initializes the allocated memory to zero, making it distinct from malloc.', 'realloc allows changing the size of a dynamically allocated block of memory, with the potential of creating an entirely new block or extending the existing block, demonstrating its flexibility in managing memory.']}, {'end': 10000.894, 'start': 9528.463, 'title': 'Dynamic memory allocation in c', 'summary': 'Explains dynamic memory allocation in c, covering the use of malloc and calloc to allocate memory, the differences between them, the use of free to deallocate memory, and the behavior of realloc to modify the size of a memory block.', 'duration': 472.431, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains dynamic memory allocation in C, covering the use of malloc and calloc to allocate memory. Use of malloc and calloc to allocate memory, explanation on how to allocate memory dynamically based on user input.', 'The chapter discusses the differences between malloc and calloc, highlighting that calloc initializes elements to zero while malloc does not provide such initialization. Comparison of malloc and calloc, highlighting the difference in initialization behavior.', 'The chapter explains the use of free to deallocate memory allocated using malloc or calloc, emphasizing the importance of deallocating memory to avoid potential issues. Importance of deallocating memory using free, potential issues if memory is not deallocated.', 'The chapter covers the behavior of realloc to modify the size of a memory block, explaining how realloc extends or reduces the memory block based on the specified size. Explanation of how realloc extends or reduces memory block, using realloc to modify the size of a memory block.']}], 'duration': 1036.465, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M8964429.jpg', 'highlights': ['Using sizeof and the number of units to calculate the total memory block size when using malloc is a best practice.', 'Explaining the need to calculate the size of the memory block needed for storing data and emphasizing the best practice of using sizeof and the number of units when using malloc.', 'Malloc returns a void pointer and must be typecasted into a pointer of the required data type for usage.', 'Calloc takes two arguments - the number of elements of a specific data type and the size of the data type, and initializes the allocated memory to zero.', 'Realloc allows changing the size of a dynamically allocated block of memory, with the potential of creating an entirely new block or extending the existing block.', 'The chapter explains dynamic memory allocation in C, covering the use of malloc and calloc to allocate memory.', 'The chapter discusses the differences between malloc and calloc, highlighting that calloc initializes elements to zero while malloc does not provide such initialization.', 'The chapter explains the use of free to deallocate memory allocated using malloc or calloc, emphasizing the importance of deallocating memory to avoid potential issues.', 'The chapter covers the behavior of realloc to modify the size of a memory block, explaining how realloc extends or reduces the memory block based on the specified size.']}, {'end': 11012.567, 'segs': [{'end': 10027.597, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 10001.434, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 10008.181, 'text': 'So realloc can be used with the right arguments as substitute for free as well as as substitute for malloc.', 'start': 10001.434, 'duration': 6.747}, {'end': 10011.904, 'text': 'This was all about malloc, calloc, realloc and free.', 'start': 10009.101, 'duration': 2.803}, {'end': 10015.968, 'text': 'We will see more code on dynamic memory allocation in the coming lessons.', 'start': 10012.384, 'duration': 3.584}, {'end': 10017.349, 'text': 'So thanks for watching.', 'start': 10016.548, 'duration': 0.801}, {'end': 10023.896, 'text': 'In this lesson, we will talk about pointers as return types for functions.', 'start': 10019.235, 'duration': 4.661}, {'end': 10027.597, 'text': 'A pointer is just another data type.', 'start': 10024.536, 'duration': 3.061}], 'summary': 'Realloc is a substitute for free and malloc. more dynamic memory code to come.', 'duration': 26.163, 'max_score': 10001.434, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M10001434.jpg'}, {'end': 10538.688, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 10512.127, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 10522.655, 'text': 'the starting address of this stack frame is 100 and the end address of this stack frame is And we will have three local variables created here a,', 'start': 10512.127, 'duration': 10.528}, {'end': 10523.876, 'text': 'b and ptr.', 'start': 10522.655, 'duration': 1.221}, {'end': 10528.119, 'text': 'a and b are integers and ptr is an integer pointer.', 'start': 10523.896, 'duration': 4.223}, {'end': 10537.106, 'text': "Let's say a is at address 100, b is at address 112 and ptr is at address 120.", 'start': 10529.04, 'duration': 8.066}, {'end': 10538.688, 'text': "I'm just making these assumptions.", 'start': 10537.106, 'duration': 1.582}], 'summary': 'Stack frame starts at 100, ends at unknown address, with 3 local variables: a, b, ptr.', 'duration': 26.561, 'max_score': 10512.127, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M10512127.jpg'}, {'end': 10853.399, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 10824.53, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 10834.584, 'text': 'I will declare this C as a pointer to integer and get some space allocated on the heap using a call to malloc.', 'start': 10824.53, 'duration': 10.054}, {'end': 10842.278, 'text': 'Now, malloc is a library function that returns pointer, but it returns pointer to an address which is on the heap.', 'start': 10834.945, 'duration': 7.333}, {'end': 10853.399, 'text': 'so we get a memory block and using this pointer variable now we can write this value asterisk a plus asterisk b at that particular memory block,', 'start': 10843.334, 'duration': 10.065}], 'summary': 'Using malloc, allocated memory on the heap for c as a pointer to integer.', 'duration': 28.869, 'max_score': 10824.53, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M10824530.jpg'}], 'start': 10001.434, 'title': 'Memory allocation and function calls', 'summary': 'Covers dynamic memory allocation in c using malloc, calloc, realloc, and free, while introducing pointers as return types for functions. it also explains call by value and call by reference in function add, detailing local and pointer variables with examples. additionally, the chapter discusses function memory allocation, stack frame, local variables, function call executions, and the use of pointers to return addresses from functions.', 'chapters': [{'end': 10049.87, 'start': 10001.434, 'title': 'Dynamic memory allocation in c', 'summary': 'Covered the concepts of malloc, calloc, realloc, and free, and also introduced pointers as return types for functions, emphasizing the possibility and use cases of returning pointers from functions.', 'duration': 48.436, 'highlights': ['Pointers as return types for functions were discussed, emphasizing the importance of understanding the use cases in which returning a pointer from a function is necessary.', 'The chapter provided an overview of malloc, calloc, realloc, and free, highlighting their roles in dynamic memory allocation in C.', 'The session concluded with a mention of upcoming lessons that will feature more code on dynamic memory allocation.']}, {'end': 10463.947, 'start': 10050.33, 'title': 'Function add and call by reference', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of call by value and call by reference while discussing the function add that takes two integers as arguments, sums them, and returns the sum, detailing local and pointer variables and providing examples and outputs.', 'duration': 413.617, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the concept of call by value and call by reference while discussing the function add that takes two integers as arguments, sums them, and returns the sum, detailing local and pointer variables and providing examples and outputs.', 'The function add initially takes two integers as arguments, sums them, and returns the sum, showcasing the concept of local variables.', 'The chapter then introduces the concept of passing addresses of variables in the add function, demonstrating call by reference and the use of pointer variables.', 'It further modifies the add function to return a pointer to an integer, highlighting the use of pointer variables and the asterisk operator.', 'The chapter also discusses logical errors that may arise and introduces another function, printHelloWorld, to demonstrate the use of multiple functions.']}, {'end': 11012.567, 'start': 10464.908, 'title': 'Function memory allocation', 'summary': 'Explains the allocation of memory in a program, focusing on the stack frame, local variables, and function call executions. it also discusses the use of pointers to return addresses from functions and the precautions required when dealing with memory allocation.', 'duration': 547.659, 'highlights': ['The memory that is allocated to a program is typically divided into sections, with local variables and information about function call executions going into the stack. Explains the typical division of memory in a program, providing an overview of where local variables and function call information are stored.', 'For each function call, some part of the memory from the stack is allocated for its execution, known as the stack frame of that method or function. Describes the allocation of memory from the stack for function execution and introduces the concept of a stack frame for each method or function.', "Addresses of variables in the main function will be accessible to the add function as long as the add function is executing. Highlights the accessibility of main function variables' addresses to the add function while the add function is executing.", "It is okay to pass a local variable's address from bottom to top in the call stack, but it is not okay to return the address of a local variable from top to bottom in the call stack. Explains the permissible direction for passing a local variable's address within the call stack and emphasizes the restriction on returning a local variable's address in the opposite direction.", 'When returning pointers from functions, it is important to be careful about the scope and ensure that the address is not reused or the data is not cleared. Stresses the importance of being cautious when returning pointers from functions, highlighting the need to prevent address reuse and data clearance.']}], 'duration': 1011.133, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M10001434.jpg', 'highlights': ['The chapter provided an overview of malloc, calloc, realloc, and free, highlighting their roles in dynamic memory allocation in C.', 'The chapter explains the concept of call by value and call by reference while discussing the function add that takes two integers as arguments, sums them, and returns the sum, detailing local and pointer variables and providing examples and outputs.', 'The memory that is allocated to a program is typically divided into sections, with local variables and information about function call executions going into the stack. Explains the typical division of memory in a program, providing an overview of where local variables and function call information are stored.']}, {'end': 12512.389, 'segs': [{'end': 11113.871, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 11061.488, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 11068.61, 'text': 'and we pass it to a program called compiler as input and corresponding to the source code.', 'start': 11061.488, 'duration': 7.122}, {'end': 11077.193, 'text': 'compiler generates what we call machine code or executable code, which is instructions encoded in binary.', 'start': 11068.61, 'duration': 8.583}, {'end': 11080.354, 'text': "something like what I'm trying to show here.", 'start': 11077.913, 'duration': 2.441}, {'end': 11084.615, 'text': 'compiler basically takes one or more source files.', 'start': 11080.354, 'duration': 4.261}, {'end': 11089.877, 'text': "let's say, the program that I have written here is in a file named program.c.", 'start': 11084.615, 'duration': 5.262}, {'end': 11099.4, 'text': 'now a compiler for C language will take this file as input and create an executable file that will have the machine code on a Windows machine.', 'start': 11089.877, 'duration': 9.523}, {'end': 11102.642, 'text': 'executable file has extension exe.', 'start': 11099.4, 'duration': 3.242}, {'end': 11109.087, 'text': 'An executable file will be stored in disk drive or some secondary storage device.', 'start': 11103.343, 'duration': 5.744}, {'end': 11113.871, 'text': 'Whenever we say memory, just memory in context of programming,', 'start': 11109.587, 'duration': 4.284}], 'summary': 'Compiler converts source code to machine code for execution, creating .exe file.', 'duration': 52.383, 'max_score': 11061.488, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M11061488.jpg'}, {'end': 11994.69, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 11965.974, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 11971.579, 'text': 'With this condition, with this comparison we are pushing the smaller number towards higher index.', 'start': 11965.974, 'duration': 5.605}, {'end': 11973.26, 'text': "Let's see the output now.", 'start': 11972.239, 'duration': 1.021}, {'end': 11976.363, 'text': "As you can see I'm getting the numbers in decreasing order.", 'start': 11973.901, 'duration': 2.462}, {'end': 11980.206, 'text': 'Now my list is sorted in decreasing order of the value of integers.', 'start': 11976.443, 'duration': 3.763}, {'end': 11984.262, 'text': "Now let's say I have a requirement like this.", 'start': 11981.42, 'duration': 2.842}, {'end': 11990.187, 'text': 'Sometimes in my program I want to sort a list of integers in increasing order,', 'start': 11984.843, 'duration': 5.344}, {'end': 11994.69, 'text': 'and sometimes I want to sort a list in decreasing order of the value of integers.', 'start': 11990.187, 'duration': 4.503}], 'summary': 'Demonstrating sorting algorithm with decreasing order output.', 'duration': 28.716, 'max_score': 11965.974, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M11965974.jpg'}, {'end': 12286.859, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 12254.372, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 12258.293, 'text': 'This array a upon sorting should rearrange like this.', 'start': 12254.372, 'duration': 3.921}, {'end': 12261.914, 'text': 'To be able to sort I will have to write a comparison function.', 'start': 12258.933, 'duration': 2.981}, {'end': 12265.335, 'text': 'Last time we had modified the same compare function.', 'start': 12262.514, 'duration': 2.821}, {'end': 12270.096, 'text': 'But actually we should be writing one comparison function for each sorting scenario.', 'start': 12266.155, 'duration': 3.941}, {'end': 12272.956, 'text': 'So I will write a new function this time.', 'start': 12270.696, 'duration': 2.26}, {'end': 12277.257, 'text': 'I will write a function named absolute compare.', 'start': 12273.597, 'duration': 3.66}, {'end': 12286.859, 'text': 'I have included a reference to math.h library and I will use abs function from this library that will give me absolute value of an integer.', 'start': 12278.097, 'duration': 8.762}], 'summary': 'Sorting array requires new comparison function for each scenario.', 'duration': 32.487, 'max_score': 12254.372, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M12254372.jpg'}], 'start': 11012.567, 'title': 'Memory segments and program execution', 'summary': 'Discusses memory allocation, compiling high-level code to machine code, necessity of binary instructions, emphasizing the role of compilers, and the essential role of compilers in generating executable files from source code. it also covers the allocation and execution of memory for programs, storage and execution of instructions in main memory, concept of functions in memory, function pointers in c/c++, use cases of function pointers in c/c++, using function pointer and callback to create a generic sorting function, and usage of the qsort library function for quick sorting.', 'chapters': [{'end': 11113.871, 'start': 11012.567, 'title': 'Memory segments and program execution', 'summary': 'Discusses memory allocation for programs, the process of compiling high-level code to machine code, and the necessity of binary instructions for computer execution, emphasizing the essential role of compilers in generating executable files from source code.', 'duration': 101.304, 'highlights': ['The process of compiling high-level code to machine code is essential for computer understanding and execution, with the compiler generating executable files from the source code.', 'Memory allocation for programs involves four segments, and the computer only understands and executes binary instructions at its lowest level of architecture.', 'A program is a sequence of instructions given to the computer to perform a task, and it is essential to encode instructions in binary for computer execution.']}, {'end': 11317.955, 'start': 11113.871, 'title': 'Understanding ram and program execution', 'summary': 'Discusses the allocation and execution of memory for programs, the storage and execution of instructions in main memory, and the concept of functions in memory, highlighting the sequential execution of instructions and the storage of function addresses.', 'duration': 204.084, 'highlights': ['When a program starts execution, it is allocated a chunk of memory from the main memory, with the code or text segment containing machine code or instructions copied from the executable file.', 'During program execution, memory is used to store both instructions to be executed and data to be worked upon, with functions being a set of instructions stored in one contiguous block of memory.', 'Instructions in a program are executed sequentially, with exceptions occurring when an instruction directs to go to or jump to another instruction at a specific address, such as in the case of function calls.', 'A function in memory is represented as one contiguous block of memory, with the address of the function being the address of the first instruction in the function.']}, {'end': 11633.075, 'start': 11318.315, 'title': 'Function pointers in c/c++', 'summary': 'Explains how to create and use function pointers in a c/c++ program, demonstrating the syntax, initialization, referencing, dereferencing, and appropriate function type for the function pointer.', 'duration': 314.76, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the creation and usage of function pointers in a C/C++ program. The chapter covers the creation and usage of function pointers, demonstrating the syntax, initialization, referencing, dereferencing, and appropriate function type for the function pointer.', 'Demonstrating the syntax and initialization of a function pointer in C/C++. The syntax and initialization of a function pointer are demonstrated, including the use of return type, asterisk, and argument types.', 'Explaining the referencing and dereferencing of a function pointer in C/C++. The referencing and dereferencing of a function pointer are explained, with examples of using the asterisk operator and the function pointer name.', 'Emphasizing the importance of appropriate function type for the function pointer in C/C++. The importance of having an appropriate function type for the function pointer is emphasized, highlighting the impact on the ability to point to a specific function.']}, {'end': 11816.811, 'start': 11633.075, 'title': 'Function pointers in c/c++', 'summary': 'Explains the use cases of function pointers in c/c++, including passing function pointers as arguments to call back functions, with a demonstration of a practical example and the concept of callback functions.', 'duration': 183.736, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the concept of passing function pointers as arguments to call back functions, with a demonstration of a practical example, showing how a function pointer can be used to call back a specific function.', 'The use cases of function pointers in C/C++ are focused on the concept of passing function pointers as arguments to call back functions, enabling the calling of specific functions through function pointers.', 'The chapter demonstrates a practical example of using function pointers in C/C++ to call back a specific function, showcasing the concept of callback functions and their application in programming.']}, {'end': 12512.389, 'start': 11817.431, 'title': 'Using function pointer and callback', 'summary': 'Demonstrates the use of function pointer and callback to create a generic sorting function that can sort a list of integers based on any ranking mechanism, and also explains the usage of the qsort library function for quick sorting.', 'duration': 694.958, 'highlights': ['The chapter demonstrates the use of function pointer and callback to create a generic sorting function The chapter discusses using function pointer and callback to create a generic sorting function that can sort a list of integers based on any ranking mechanism, providing a flexible and reusable solution.', 'Explains the usage of the qsort library function for quick sorting The chapter explains the usage of the qsort library function for quick sorting, detailing its parameters and the required comparison function signature, showcasing its generic capability to sort arrays of various data types.', 'Shows how to sort a list of integers based on any ranking mechanism The chapter demonstrates how to sort a list of integers based on any ranking mechanism using a callback function, exemplifying scenarios such as sorting in increasing order, decreasing order, and based on the absolute value of integers.']}], 'duration': 1499.822, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M11012567.jpg', 'highlights': ['The process of compiling high-level code to machine code is essential for computer understanding and execution, with the compiler generating executable files from the source code.', 'Memory allocation for programs involves four segments, and the computer only understands and executes binary instructions at its lowest level of architecture.', 'A program is a sequence of instructions given to the computer to perform a task, and it is essential to encode instructions in binary for computer execution.', 'During program execution, memory is used to store both instructions to be executed and data to be worked upon, with functions being a set of instructions stored in one contiguous block of memory.', 'The chapter explains the creation and usage of function pointers in a C/C++ program. The chapter covers the creation and usage of function pointers, demonstrating the syntax, initialization, referencing, dereferencing, and appropriate function type for the function pointer.', 'The chapter explains the concept of passing function pointers as arguments to call back functions, with a demonstration of a practical example, showing how a function pointer can be used to call back a specific function.', 'The chapter demonstrates the use of function pointer and callback to create a generic sorting function that can sort a list of integers based on any ranking mechanism, providing a flexible and reusable solution.', 'Explains the usage of the qsort library function for quick sorting The chapter explains the usage of the qsort library function for quick sorting, detailing its parameters and the required comparison function signature, showcasing its generic capability to sort arrays of various data types.']}, {'end': 13641.4, 'segs': [{'end': 13058.782, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 13033.462, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 13041.146, 'text': 'we will write a print statement like this We will say that you have won and the result is this and your total cash right now is this', 'start': 13033.462, 'duration': 7.684}, {'end': 13043.387, 'text': 'Remember, cash is a global variable.', 'start': 13041.786, 'duration': 1.601}, {'end': 13046.509, 'text': 'And we will print something similar if the player loses.', 'start': 13043.407, 'duration': 3.102}, {'end': 13050.631, 'text': 'Finally, our play function is looking something like this.', 'start': 13047.849, 'duration': 2.782}, {'end': 13055.041, 'text': 'And we have also moved this variable cache at the top.', 'start': 13051.9, 'duration': 3.141}, {'end': 13058.782, 'text': "In the main method, I've added two more print statements initially.", 'start': 13055.561, 'duration': 3.221}], 'summary': 'Code includes print statements for winning, losing, and total cash; also updates global cash variable.', 'duration': 25.32, 'max_score': 13033.462, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M13033462.jpg'}, {'end': 13218.144, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 13189.104, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 13192.166, 'text': "I have opened the task manager and I'm running the executable.", 'start': 13189.104, 'duration': 3.062}, {'end': 13195.508, 'text': 'Watch for the memory consumption of game.exe.', 'start': 13192.927, 'duration': 2.581}, {'end': 13197.47, 'text': 'I will make some bets.', 'start': 13196.149, 'duration': 1.321}, {'end': 13203.058, 'text': 'As you can see right now the memory consumption is 348K.', 'start': 13199.777, 'duration': 3.281}, {'end': 13208.5, 'text': 'I just kept on playing and after some time the memory consumption is 488K.', 'start': 13203.478, 'duration': 5.022}, {'end': 13215.102, 'text': 'It has shot up and if you will keep playing this game further after some time it will shoot up again.', 'start': 13209.12, 'duration': 5.982}, {'end': 13218.144, 'text': 'Maybe after some time but it will shoot up for sure.', 'start': 13215.603, 'duration': 2.541}], 'summary': 'Monitoring game.exe memory consumption, it increased from 348k to 488k, likely to rise further during gameplay.', 'duration': 29.04, 'max_score': 13189.104, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M13189104.jpg'}, {'end': 13290.697, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 13257.724, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 13260.484, 'text': 'This is what we call the stack frame of a function.', 'start': 13257.724, 'duration': 2.76}, {'end': 13266.305, 'text': 'So this is stack frame of main and all the local variables of main will sit inside this stack frame.', 'start': 13260.744, 'duration': 5.561}, {'end': 13268.626, 'text': 'In our code, we had a local variable named bet.', 'start': 13266.745, 'duration': 1.881}, {'end': 13273.588, 'text': 'so it will go here and we had a global variable named cache.', 'start': 13269.566, 'duration': 4.022}, {'end': 13276.91, 'text': "so initially, let's say, main function is executing.", 'start': 13273.588, 'duration': 3.322}, {'end': 13281.292, 'text': 'when we play our game, main function makes multiple calls to play function.', 'start': 13276.91, 'duration': 4.382}, {'end': 13290.697, 'text': 'what really happens when a function makes call to another function is that that particular function is paused and memory is allocated for the execution of the called function.', 'start': 13281.292, 'duration': 9.405}], 'summary': 'Explanation of stack frame and function calls in programming.', 'duration': 32.973, 'max_score': 13257.724, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M13257724.jpg'}, {'end': 13351.417, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 13325.729, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 13330.49, 'text': 'anytime a function call finishes, the memory that it is allocated on the stack is reclaimed.', 'start': 13325.729, 'duration': 4.761}, {'end': 13333.671, 'text': 'So there is one stack frame corresponding to each call.', 'start': 13330.85, 'duration': 2.821}, {'end': 13337.892, 'text': 'And as soon as that call finishes, that memory is claimed back.', 'start': 13333.991, 'duration': 3.901}, {'end': 13341.973, 'text': 'Now main will make another call to play because we will play multiple rounds.', 'start': 13338.392, 'duration': 3.581}, {'end': 13346.694, 'text': 'So play will again come into the stack, and it will be cleared again when play finishes.', 'start': 13342.353, 'duration': 4.341}, {'end': 13351.417, 'text': 'As you can see, all the local variables get cleared each time the function call finishes.', 'start': 13347.114, 'duration': 4.303}], 'summary': 'Memory allocated on stack reclaimed after function call finishes.', 'duration': 25.688, 'max_score': 13325.729, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M13325729.jpg'}, {'end': 13446.533, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 13406.039, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 13413.642, 'text': 'Now when the call to play function will finish, the memory allocated for the execution of call to play function will be reclaimed.', 'start': 13406.039, 'duration': 7.603}, {'end': 13415.843, 'text': 'So all the local variables will go away.', 'start': 13413.962, 'duration': 1.881}, {'end': 13422.866, 'text': 'But this memory on the heap will lie unused and unreferenced and it will not get de allocated.', 'start': 13416.223, 'duration': 6.643}, {'end': 13431.148, 'text': 'anything on the heap has to be explicitly deallocated by making a call to free function or by using delete operator and think about it.', 'start': 13423.226, 'duration': 7.922}, {'end': 13438.811, 'text': 'we will make multiple calls to play function as we play multiple rounds of our game and each time in each call to play,', 'start': 13431.148, 'duration': 7.663}, {'end': 13446.533, 'text': 'we will create one such memory block on the heap that will lie unreferenced and unused when call to play function will finish.', 'start': 13438.811, 'duration': 7.722}], 'summary': 'Memory allocated for call to play function needs explicit deallocation to avoid unused and unreferenced memory on the heap.', 'duration': 40.494, 'max_score': 13406.039, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M13406039.jpg'}], 'start': 12512.389, 'title': 'Memory management in c/c++', 'summary': 'Covers function pointers, event handling, and memory leaks in c++, emphasizing the impact on heap memory and the importance of deallocating memory. it also explains the implementation of a simple betting game in c and discusses preventing memory leaks in c/c++ by managing dynamic memory.', 'chapters': [{'end': 12718.579, 'start': 12512.389, 'title': 'Callback, event handling, and memory leak in c++', 'summary': 'Covers the use of function pointers in event handling and discusses the concept of memory leak caused by improper use of dynamic memory in c++, emphasizing the impact on heap memory and the importance of deallocating memory to avoid memory leaks.', 'duration': 206.19, 'highlights': ['Memory leak is a situation when we get some memory on the heap and do not free it when we are done using it. Memory leak occurs when memory allocated on the heap is not deallocated, leading to unused memory consumption, impacting application performance.', 'The const keyword here means you cannot modify the address in this pointer variable. The const keyword in a pointer variable ensures that the address it points to cannot be modified, enhancing the safety and predictability of the program.', "Heap can grow as per our need. We get memory from the heap by making a call to malloc function in C and when we are done using that memory on the heap, we make a call to the free function to deallocate or free that particular memory. The dynamic memory allocation from the heap in C allows the heap to grow based on the program's requirements, and it is essential to deallocate the memory using free to prevent memory leaks."]}, {'end': 12985.001, 'start': 12719.28, 'title': 'Simple betting game in c', 'summary': 'Explains the implementation of a simple betting game in c, where a player bets on the position of a card and wins three times the bet amount if guessed correctly, while losing the bet amount if guessed incorrectly, with an initial virtual cash of $100 and the ability to play until running out of cash.', 'duration': 265.721, 'highlights': ['The game involves three positions and three cards (Jack, Queen, and King), with the player having to guess the position of the Queen, betting virtual cash and winning three times the bet amount if guessed correctly, and losing the bet amount if guessed incorrectly.', "The implementation includes a global variable 'cash' to store the virtual cash available with the player, allowing the player to play as many times as desired until running out of cash.", 'The code features a play function that includes the logic for a randomized shuffling of the cards using the random number generator function in C, with the use of srand for seeding the random number generator and a swapping algorithm to shuffle the characters at random positions.']}, {'end': 13641.4, 'start': 12985.461, 'title': 'Preventing memory leaks in c/c++', 'summary': 'Discusses the prevention of memory leaks in c/c++ by explaining the difference between stack and heap memory allocation, highlighting the impact of not deallocating memory on the heap, and demonstrating the use of the free function to avoid memory leaks, ultimately emphasizing the importance of managing dynamic memory to prevent memory consumption from increasing over time.', 'duration': 655.939, 'highlights': ['The chapter explains the difference between stack and heap memory allocation, demonstrating the impact of not deallocating memory on the heap through a practical example.', 'It emphasizes the importance of managing dynamic memory to prevent memory consumption from increasing over time, highlighting the potential memory leaks that can occur due to unused and unreferenced memory blocks in the heap.', 'The chapter demonstrates the use of the free function to deallocate memory on the heap, preventing memory leaks and effectively managing the dynamic memory allocation in C/C++.', 'It discusses the impact of not deallocating memory on the heap, showcasing how the memory consumption would have shot up significantly if memory deallocation using the free function was not implemented.']}], 'duration': 1129.011, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zuegQmMdy8M/pics/zuegQmMdy8M12512389.jpg', 'highlights': ["The dynamic memory allocation from the heap in C allows the heap to grow based on the program's requirements, and it is essential to deallocate the memory using free to prevent memory leaks.", 'The const keyword in a pointer variable ensures that the address it points to cannot be modified, enhancing the safety and predictability of the program.', 'The chapter demonstrates the use of the free function to deallocate memory on the heap, preventing memory leaks and effectively managing the dynamic memory allocation in C/C++.', "The implementation includes a global variable 'cash' to store the virtual cash available with the player, allowing the player to play as many times as desired until running out of cash.", 'The chapter explains the difference between stack and heap memory allocation, demonstrating the impact of not deallocating memory on the heap through a practical example.', 'The game involves three positions and three cards (Jack, Queen, and King), with the player having to guess the position of the Queen, betting virtual cash and winning three times the bet amount if guessed correctly, and losing the bet amount if guessed incorrectly.']}], 'highlights': ["The concept of pointers, along with the storage of various data types and variables in a computer's memory, is demystified for beginner programmers.", 'The process of declaring variables and performing operations on them is explained with practical examples.', 'Pointers are variables that store the address of another variable, allowing for operations on memory addresses in a C or C++ program.', 'The syntax of pointer variables in C involves using an asterisk sign before the variable name to indicate a pointer variable, and the ampersand sign to retrieve the address of a variable.', "The ampersand operator is used to obtain the address of a variable, such as '&A', and dereferencing is used to modify the value at that address, as in '*P = 12', showcasing the concept of pointers and addresses.", 'The machine retrieves the value 1025 out of these 4 bytes when dereferencing a pointer to an integer.', 'The size of integer is four bytes and the value at the specified address is 1025.', 'The chapter explains the concept of void pointers and how to declare and use them, highlighting that void pointers are not mapped to a particular data type and cannot be dereferenced, with examples and explanations.', 'The allocation for the text segment, global variable segment, and stack segment is fixed and determined at the start of program execution, while the heap segment can dynamically request more memory during execution.', 'The relationship between pointers and arrays is explained, demonstrating how arrays are stored in memory and how pointers can be used to access array elements.', 'Understanding array representation in memory is crucial for manipulating addresses and accessing array values.', 'Character arrays in C are crucial for working with strings, such as storing names, phrases, and sentences, and performing operations on strings like modifying, copying, concatenating, and finding properties, like length.', 'The importance of null termination in C string manipulation is emphasized, as all functions expect strings to be null terminated, demonstrated through code examples.', 'The significance of understanding pointer types for different dimensions of multi-dimensional arrays is highlighted, explaining the enforcement of dimensions and common mistakes to avoid.', "Explains the usage of stack frames in a program's call stack, including the allocation of memory for local variables, arguments, and the mechanism for function execution and return.", 'Dynamic memory allocation in C and C++ involves stack and heap memory allocation, where the size of the stack is decided by the operating system and compiler, and heap allocation requires using functions like malloc in C and new in C++.', 'Using sizeof and the number of units to calculate the total memory block size when using malloc is a best practice.', 'The chapter explains dynamic memory allocation in C, covering the use of malloc and calloc to allocate memory.', 'The chapter explains the concept of call by value and call by reference while discussing the function add that takes two integers as arguments, sums them, and returns the sum, detailing local and pointer variables and providing examples and outputs.', 'The process of compiling high-level code to machine code is essential for computer understanding and execution, with the compiler generating executable files from the source code.', 'The chapter explains the creation and usage of function pointers in a C/C++ program. The chapter covers the creation and usage of function pointers, demonstrating the syntax, initialization, referencing, dereferencing, and appropriate function type for the function pointer.', "The dynamic memory allocation from the heap in C allows the heap to grow based on the program's requirements, and it is essential to deallocate the memory using free to prevent memory leaks.", 'The const keyword in a pointer variable ensures that the address it points to cannot be modified, enhancing the safety and predictability of the program.']}