title
But what is the Central Limit Theorem?

description
A visual introduction to probability's most important theorem Help fund future projects: https://www.patreon.com/3blue1brown Special thanks to these lovely supporters: https://www.3blue1brown.com/lessons/clt#thanks An equally valuable form of support is to simply share the videos. Galton board shown in the video: https://amzn.to/3ZJK8nY ----------------- Timestamps 0:00 - Introduction 1:53 - A simplified Galton Board 4:14 - The general idea 6:15 - Dice simulations 8:55 - The true distributions for sums 11:41 - Mean, variance, and standard deviation 15:54 - Unpacking the Gaussian formula 20:47 - The more elegant formulation 25:01 - A concrete example 27:10 - Sample means 28:10 - Underlying assumptions Correction: 6:37 The narration should say "skewed left" Correction: 7:15 Again, the narration should say "skews a tiny bit left" ------------------ These animations are largely made using a custom python library, manim. See the FAQ comments here: https://www.3blue1brown.com/faq#manim https://github.com/3b1b/manim https://github.com/ManimCommunity/manim/ You can find code for specific videos and projects here: https://github.com/3b1b/videos/ Music by Vincent Rubinetti. https://www.vincentrubinetti.com/ Download the music on Bandcamp: https://vincerubinetti.bandcamp.com/album/the-music-of-3blue1brown Stream the music on Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/album/1dVyjwS8FBqXhRunaG5W5u ------------------ 3blue1brown is a channel about animating math, in all senses of the word animate. And you know the drill with YouTube, if you want to stay posted on new videos, subscribe: http://3b1b.co/subscribe Various social media stuffs: Website: https://www.3blue1brown.com Twitter: https://twitter.com/3blue1brown Reddit: https://www.reddit.com/r/3blue1brown Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/3blue1brown Patreon: https://patreon.com/3blue1brown Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/3blue1brown

detail
{'title': 'But what is the Central Limit Theorem?', 'heatmap': [{'end': 754.58, 'start': 730.782, 'weight': 0.749}, {'end': 1145.832, 'start': 1101.105, 'weight': 0.758}, {'end': 1875, 'start': 1856.25, 'weight': 0.867}], 'summary': 'Explores various aspects of normal distribution, central limit theorem, and probability distributions through demonstrations with galton board, ball bouncing, simulations, dice sums, and normal distribution formula, emphasizing the convergence to bell curve distributions and the 95% confidence interval for the sum of random variables.', 'chapters': [{'end': 121.892, 'segs': [{'end': 31.92, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 0.109, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 1.23, 'text': 'This is a Galton board.', 'start': 0.109, 'duration': 1.121}, {'end': 3.552, 'text': "Maybe you've seen one before.", 'start': 2.551, 'duration': 1.001}, {'end': 10.556, 'text': "It's a popular demonstration of how, even when a single event is chaotic and random with an effectively unknowable outcome,", 'start': 3.652, 'duration': 6.904}, {'end': 14.619, 'text': "it's still possible to make precise statements about a large number of events,", 'start': 10.556, 'duration': 4.063}, {'end': 18.282, 'text': 'namely how the relative proportions for many different outcomes are distributed.', 'start': 14.619, 'duration': 3.663}, {'end': 27.897, 'text': 'More specifically, the Galton board illustrates one of the most prominent distributions in all of probability, known as the normal distribution,', 'start': 20.731, 'duration': 7.166}, {'end': 31.92, 'text': 'more colloquially known as a bell curve and also called a Gaussian distribution.', 'start': 27.897, 'duration': 4.023}], 'summary': 'Galton board demonstrates normal distribution in probability.', 'duration': 31.811, 'max_score': 0.109, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo109.jpg'}, {'end': 64.926, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 37.405, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 42.389, 'text': 'But right now, I just want to emphasize how the normal distribution is, as the name suggests, very common.', 'start': 37.405, 'duration': 4.984}, {'end': 44.991, 'text': 'It shows up in a lot of seemingly unrelated contexts.', 'start': 42.549, 'duration': 2.442}, {'end': 50.75, 'text': 'If you were to take a large number of people who sit in a similar demographic and plot their heights,', 'start': 46.004, 'duration': 4.746}, {'end': 53.072, 'text': 'those heights tend to follow a normal distribution.', 'start': 50.75, 'duration': 2.322}, {'end': 61.562, 'text': 'If you look at a large swath of very big natural numbers and you ask how many distinct prime factors does each one of those numbers have?', 'start': 53.994, 'duration': 7.568}, {'end': 64.926, 'text': 'the answers will very closely track with a certain normal distribution.', 'start': 61.562, 'duration': 3.364}], 'summary': 'The normal distribution is very common, appearing in various contexts like heights and prime factors.', 'duration': 27.521, 'max_score': 37.405, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo37405.jpg'}, {'end': 100.933, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 69.62, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 76.008, 'text': "It's one of the key facts that explains why this distribution is as common as it is, known as the central limit theorem.", 'start': 69.62, 'duration': 6.388}, {'end': 83.277, 'text': 'This lesson is meant to go back to the basics, giving you the fundamentals on what the central limit theorem is saying, what normal distributions are,', 'start': 76.669, 'duration': 6.608}, {'end': 84.698, 'text': 'and I want to assume minimal background.', 'start': 83.277, 'duration': 1.421}, {'end': 87.223, 'text': "We're going to go decently deep into it.", 'start': 85.302, 'duration': 1.921}, {'end': 91.566, 'text': "but after this I'd still like to go deeper and explain why the theorem is true,", 'start': 87.223, 'duration': 4.343}, {'end': 100.933, 'text': 'why the function underlying the normal distribution has the very specific form that it does, why that formula has a pi in it and, most fun,', 'start': 91.566, 'duration': 9.367}], 'summary': 'Exploring the central limit theorem and normal distributions with minimal background, delving into its true meaning and underlying formula.', 'duration': 31.313, 'max_score': 69.62, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo69620.jpg'}], 'start': 0.109, 'title': 'Understanding normal distribution', 'summary': 'Introduces the galton board as a demonstration of the normal distribution, explaining its prevalence in various contexts and previews the upcoming lessons on the central limit theorem and underlying principles of normal distribution.', 'chapters': [{'end': 121.892, 'start': 0.109, 'title': 'Understanding normal distribution', 'summary': 'Introduces the galton board as a demonstration of the normal distribution, explaining its prevalence in various contexts, and previews the upcoming lessons on the central limit theorem and underlying principles of the normal distribution.', 'duration': 121.783, 'highlights': ['The normal distribution, also known as the bell curve or Gaussian distribution, is a prevalent concept in probability and can be observed in various contexts such as heights of people and prime factors of natural numbers.', "The chapter previews upcoming lessons on the central limit theorem, aiming to provide fundamental understanding and minimal background assumption, with plans to delve deeper into the theorem's underlying principles and their interrelatedness.", 'The Galton board is introduced as a popular demonstration of how precise statements about a large number of events can be made, despite chaotic and random outcomes, showcasing the concept of normal distribution.']}], 'duration': 121.783, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo109.jpg', 'highlights': ['The normal distribution is prevalent in probability and observed in various contexts.', 'The Galton board demonstrates making precise statements about a large number of events.', 'The chapter previews upcoming lessons on the central limit theorem.']}, {'end': 369.603, 'segs': [{'end': 146.989, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 121.892, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 129.537, 'text': 'we will assume that each ball falls directly onto a certain central peg and that it has a 50-50 probability of bouncing to the left or to the right.', 'start': 121.892, 'duration': 7.645}, {'end': 134.1, 'text': "And we'll think of each of those outcomes as either adding one or subtracting one from its position.", 'start': 130.078, 'duration': 4.022}, {'end': 142.626, 'text': 'Once one of those is chosen, we make the highly unrealistic assumption that it happens to land dead-on in the middle of the peg adjacent below it,', 'start': 134.701, 'duration': 7.925}, {'end': 146.989, 'text': "where, again, it'll be faced with the same 50-50 choice of bouncing to the left or to the right.", 'start': 142.626, 'duration': 4.363}], 'summary': 'Balls fall on pegs with 50-50 chance of bouncing left or right.', 'duration': 25.097, 'max_score': 121.892, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo121892.jpg'}, {'end': 181.648, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 155.813, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 163.036, 'text': 'and we can think of its final position as basically being the sum of all of those different numbers, which in this case happened to be one,', 'start': 155.813, 'duration': 7.223}, {'end': 166.358, 'text': 'and we might label all of the different buckets with the sum that they represent.', 'start': 163.036, 'duration': 3.322}, {'end': 171.06, 'text': "As we repeat this, we're looking at different possible sums for those five random numbers.", 'start': 166.798, 'duration': 4.262}, {'end': 178.304, 'text': 'And for those of you who are inclined to complain that this is a highly unrealistic model for the true Galton board,', 'start': 172.978, 'duration': 5.326}, {'end': 181.648, 'text': 'let me emphasize the goal right now is not to accurately model physics.', 'start': 178.304, 'duration': 3.344}], 'summary': 'Sum of different numbers represented by labeled buckets, not an accurate physics model.', 'duration': 25.835, 'max_score': 155.813, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo155813.jpg'}, {'end': 326.398, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 296.665, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 300.929, 'text': 'And in the case of a die, you might imagine rolling many different dice and adding up the results.', 'start': 296.665, 'duration': 4.264}, {'end': 306.233, 'text': 'The claim of the central limit theorem is that as you let the size of that sum get bigger and bigger,', 'start': 301.389, 'duration': 4.844}, {'end': 314.095, 'text': 'then the distribution of that sum how likely it is to fall into different possible values will look more and more like a bell curve.', 'start': 306.894, 'duration': 7.201}, {'end': 315.756, 'text': "That's it.", 'start': 315.476, 'duration': 0.28}, {'end': 317.076, 'text': 'That is the general idea.', 'start': 315.956, 'duration': 1.12}, {'end': 321.597, 'text': 'Over the course of this lesson, our job is to make that statement more quantitative.', 'start': 317.576, 'duration': 4.021}, {'end': 326.398, 'text': "We're going to put some numbers to it, put some formulas to it, show how you can use it to make predictions.", 'start': 322.017, 'duration': 4.381}], 'summary': 'The central limit theorem states that as the size of the sum of rolled dice increases, the distribution becomes more like a bell curve.', 'duration': 29.733, 'max_score': 296.665, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo296665.jpg'}, {'end': 387.525, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 357.839, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 360.08, 'text': 'three things that have to be true before the theorem follows.', 'start': 357.839, 'duration': 2.241}, {'end': 363.801, 'text': "And I'm actually not going to tell you what they are until the very end of the video.", 'start': 360.6, 'duration': 3.201}, {'end': 369.603, 'text': 'Instead, I want you to keep your eye out and see if you can notice and maybe predict what those three assumptions are going to be.', 'start': 364.262, 'duration': 5.341}, {'end': 377.326, 'text': 'As a next step to better illustrate just how general this theorem is, I want to run a couple more simulations for you focused on the dice example.', 'start': 370.724, 'duration': 6.602}, {'end': 385.324, 'text': 'Usually, if you think of rolling a die, you think of the six outcomes as being equally probable.', 'start': 381.101, 'duration': 4.223}, {'end': 387.525, 'text': "But the theorem actually doesn't care about that.", 'start': 385.764, 'duration': 1.761}], 'summary': "The theorem's assumptions will be revealed later. the theorem is general and applies to the dice example as well.", 'duration': 29.686, 'max_score': 357.839, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo357839.jpg'}], 'start': 121.892, 'title': 'Random ball bouncing and central limit theorem', 'summary': 'Discusses the random movement of a ball falling onto pegs with a 50-50 probability of bouncing left or right, resulting in different possible sums for the final position. it also illustrates the central limit theorem using an idealized galton board, showing how the distribution of the sum of random variables tends towards a bell curve, with the goal of making the statement more quantitative and applicable to making predictions, such as finding a range of values with 95% certainty for the sum of 100 die rolls.', 'chapters': [{'end': 171.06, 'start': 121.892, 'title': 'Random ball bouncing', 'summary': 'Discusses the random movement of a ball falling onto pegs with a 50-50 probability of bouncing left or right, resulting in different possible sums for the final position.', 'duration': 49.168, 'highlights': ['The ball falls onto pegs with a 50-50 probability of bouncing left or right, resulting in different possible sums for the final position.', 'The final position of the ball is the sum of all the different numbers, which can represent different possible sums for those five random numbers.', 'The chapter assumes a highly unrealistic scenario of the ball landing dead-on in the middle of the peg adjacent below it.']}, {'end': 369.603, 'start': 172.978, 'title': 'Central limit theorem', 'summary': 'Illustrates the central limit theorem using an idealized galton board, showing how the distribution of the sum of random variables tends towards a bell curve, with the goal of making the statement more quantitative and applicable to making predictions, such as finding a range of values with 95% certainty for the sum of 100 die rolls.', 'duration': 196.625, 'highlights': ['The central limit theorem describes how the distribution of the sum of random variables tends towards a bell curve as the size of the sum increases, illustrated through the example of a Galton board with the goal of making the statement more quantitative.', 'The chapter aims to make the central limit theorem more quantitative and applicable to making predictions, such as finding a range of values with 95% certainty for the sum of 100 die rolls, regardless of the fairness of the die.', 'The theorem has three different assumptions that must be true for it to follow, with the audience encouraged to predict these assumptions throughout the video.']}], 'duration': 247.711, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo121892.jpg', 'highlights': ['The central limit theorem describes how the distribution of the sum of random variables tends towards a bell curve as the size of the sum increases, illustrated through the example of a Galton board with the goal of making the statement more quantitative.', 'The chapter aims to make the central limit theorem more quantitative and applicable to making predictions, such as finding a range of values with 95% certainty for the sum of 100 die rolls, regardless of the fairness of the die.', 'The ball falls onto pegs with a 50-50 probability of bouncing left or right, resulting in different possible sums for the final position.', 'The final position of the ball is the sum of all the different numbers, which can represent different possible sums for those five random numbers.', 'The chapter assumes a highly unrealistic scenario of the ball landing dead-on in the middle of the peg adjacent below it.', 'The theorem has three different assumptions that must be true for it to follow, with the audience encouraged to predict these assumptions throughout the video.']}, {'end': 535.05, 'segs': [{'end': 454.632, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 427.715, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 432.478, 'text': "And as it does, you'll notice that the shape that starts to emerge looks like a bell curve.", 'start': 427.715, 'duration': 4.763}, {'end': 436.441, 'text': 'Maybe if you squint your eyes, you can see it skews a tiny bit to the left.', 'start': 432.959, 'duration': 3.482}, {'end': 440.925, 'text': "But it's neat that something so symmetric emerged from a starting point that was so asymmetric.", 'start': 436.762, 'duration': 4.163}, {'end': 447.228, 'text': 'To better illustrate what the central limit theorem is all about, let me run four of these simulations in parallel.', 'start': 441.545, 'duration': 5.683}, {'end': 451.27, 'text': "where, on the upper left, I'm doing it where we're only adding two dice at a time.", 'start': 447.228, 'duration': 4.042}, {'end': 454.632, 'text': "on the upper right, we're doing it where we're adding five dice at a time.", 'start': 451.27, 'duration': 3.362}], 'summary': 'The central limit theorem demonstrates emergence of bell curve from asymmetric starting point through simulations adding 2 and 5 dice at a time.', 'duration': 26.917, 'max_score': 427.715, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo427715.jpg'}, {'end': 535.05, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 502.694, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 506.437, 'text': "it's still the case that a bell curve shape will emerge as we consider the different sums.", 'start': 502.694, 'duration': 3.743}, {'end': 512.885, 'text': "Illustrating things with a simulation like this is very fun and it's kind of neat to see order emerge from chaos,", 'start': 507.205, 'duration': 5.68}, {'end': 514.946, 'text': 'but it also feels a little imprecise.', 'start': 512.885, 'duration': 2.061}, {'end': 516.187, 'text': 'Like in this case.', 'start': 515.366, 'duration': 0.821}, {'end': 523.008, 'text': 'when I cut off the simulation at 3000 samples, even though it kind of looks like a bell curve, the different buckets seem pretty spiky.', 'start': 516.187, 'duration': 6.821}, {'end': 525.808, 'text': 'And you might wonder is it supposed to look that way?', 'start': 523.268, 'duration': 2.54}, {'end': 528.549, 'text': 'Or is that just an artifact of the randomness in the simulation??', 'start': 525.888, 'duration': 2.661}, {'end': 535.05, 'text': "And if it is, how many samples do we need before we can be sure that what we're looking at is representative of the true distribution?", 'start': 529.029, 'duration': 6.021}], 'summary': 'Simulation reveals bell curve shape, but requires more precise sampling for representative distribution.', 'duration': 32.356, 'max_score': 502.694, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo502694.jpg'}], 'start': 370.724, 'title': 'Central limit theorem simulations', 'summary': 'Illustrates the central limit theorem through simulations, demonstrating the convergence of diverse distributions to a bell curve shape as the number of samples increases, emphasizing the emergence of symmetric distributions.', 'chapters': [{'end': 535.05, 'start': 370.724, 'title': 'Central limit theorem simulations', 'summary': 'Illustrates the central limit theorem through simulations, showing how diverse distributions converge to a bell curve shape as the number of samples increases, with an emphasis on the emergence of symmetric distributions.', 'duration': 164.326, 'highlights': ['The simulations demonstrate how diverse distributions converge to a bell curve shape as the number of samples increases', 'The emergence of symmetric distributions is emphasized', 'The impact of increasing sample size on the distribution shape is showcased through parallel simulations']}], 'duration': 164.326, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo370724.jpg', 'highlights': ['The simulations demonstrate how diverse distributions converge to a bell curve shape as the number of samples increases', 'The impact of increasing sample size on the distribution shape is showcased through parallel simulations', 'The emergence of symmetric distributions is emphasized']}, {'end': 939.353, 'segs': [{'end': 565.37, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 539.318, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 545.301, 'text': "Instead, moving forward, let's get a little more theoretical and show the precise shape that these distributions will take on in the long run.", 'start': 539.318, 'duration': 5.983}, {'end': 553.405, 'text': 'The easiest case to make this calculation is if we have a uniform distribution, where each possible face of the die has an equal probability, 1 sixth.', 'start': 546.081, 'duration': 7.324}, {'end': 558.047, 'text': 'For example, if you then want to know how likely different sums are for a pair of dice,', 'start': 553.965, 'duration': 4.082}, {'end': 565.37, 'text': "it's essentially a counting game where you count up how many distinct pairs take on the same sum, which, in the diagram I've drawn,", 'start': 558.047, 'duration': 7.323}], 'summary': 'Exploring theoretical shapes of distributions with uniform probability of 1/6 for each face of the die.', 'duration': 26.052, 'max_score': 539.318, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo539318.jpg'}, {'end': 634.746, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 598.536, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 600.097, 'text': 'you do essentially the same thing.', 'start': 598.536, 'duration': 1.561}, {'end': 604.219, 'text': 'you go through all the distinct pairs of dice which add up to the same value.', 'start': 600.097, 'duration': 4.122}, {'end': 607.58, 'text': "it's just that, instead of counting those pairs for each pair,", 'start': 604.219, 'duration': 3.361}, {'end': 612.683, 'text': 'you multiply the two probabilities of each particular face coming up and then you add all those together.', 'start': 607.58, 'duration': 5.103}, {'end': 616.807, 'text': 'The computation that does this for all possible sums has a fancy name.', 'start': 613.283, 'duration': 3.524}, {'end': 617.968, 'text': "It's called a convolution.", 'start': 616.927, 'duration': 1.041}, {'end': 624.475, 'text': "But it's essentially just the weighted version of the counting game that anyone who's played with a pair of dice already finds familiar.", 'start': 618.328, 'duration': 6.147}, {'end': 626.077, 'text': 'For our purposes.', 'start': 625.056, 'duration': 1.021}, {'end': 632.684, 'text': "in this lesson, I'll have the computer calculate all that, simply display the results for you and invite you to observe certain patterns.", 'start': 626.077, 'duration': 6.607}, {'end': 634.746, 'text': "But under the hood, this is what's going on.", 'start': 632.904, 'duration': 1.842}], 'summary': 'The computation of distinct pairs of dice adding up to the same value involves a convolution, which is essentially a weighted version of the counting game.', 'duration': 36.21, 'max_score': 598.536, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo598536.jpg'}, {'end': 756.582, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 730.782, 'weight': 0.749, 'content': [{'end': 736.747, 'text': "A little more interesting is if you want to measure how spread out this distribution is, because there's multiple different ways you might do it.", 'start': 730.782, 'duration': 5.965}, {'end': 740.389, 'text': 'One of them is called the variance.', 'start': 738.888, 'duration': 1.501}, {'end': 748.255, 'text': 'The idea there is to look at the difference between each possible value and the mean, square that difference, and ask for its expected value.', 'start': 740.87, 'duration': 7.385}, {'end': 754.58, 'text': 'The idea is that, whether your value is below or above the mean, when you square that difference, you get a positive number,', 'start': 748.716, 'duration': 5.864}, {'end': 756.582, 'text': 'and the larger the difference, the bigger that number.', 'start': 754.58, 'duration': 2.002}], 'summary': 'Measuring distribution spread via variance, by squaring and summing differences from the mean.', 'duration': 25.8, 'max_score': 730.782, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo730782.jpg'}, {'end': 824.84, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 796.613, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 801.218, 'text': 'If we call the mean of the initial distribution mu, which for the one illustrated happens to be 2.24,', 'start': 796.613, 'duration': 4.605}, {'end': 806.724, 'text': "hopefully it won't be too surprising if I tell you that the mean of the next one is 2 times mu.", 'start': 801.218, 'duration': 5.506}, {'end': 812.791, 'text': "That is, you roll a pair of dice, you want to know the expected value of the sum, it's 2 times the expected value for a single die.", 'start': 807.105, 'duration': 5.686}, {'end': 819.356, 'text': 'Similarly, the expected value for our sum of size 3 is 3 times mu, and so on and so forth.', 'start': 813.812, 'duration': 5.544}, {'end': 824.84, 'text': 'The mean just marches steadily on to the right, which is why our distributions seem to be drifting off in that direction.', 'start': 819.636, 'duration': 5.204}], 'summary': 'Mean of initial distribution is 2.24; next one is 2 times mu. sum of size 3 is 3 times mu.', 'duration': 28.227, 'max_score': 796.613, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo796613.jpg'}, {'end': 895.634, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 861.207, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 867.154, 'text': 'if you were to take n different realizations of the same random variable and ask what the sum looks like,', 'start': 861.207, 'duration': 5.947}, {'end': 871.32, 'text': 'the variance of that sum is n times the variance of your original variable.', 'start': 867.154, 'duration': 4.166}, {'end': 878.224, 'text': 'meaning the standard deviation, the square root of all this, is the square root of n times the original standard deviation.', 'start': 872.381, 'duration': 5.843}, {'end': 885.207, 'text': 'For example, back in our sequence of distributions, if we label the standard deviation of our initial one with sigma,', 'start': 879.224, 'duration': 5.983}, {'end': 888.809, 'text': 'then the next standard deviation is going to be the square root of 2 times sigma.', 'start': 885.207, 'duration': 3.602}, {'end': 893.612, 'text': 'And after that, it looks like the square root of 3 times sigma, and so on and so forth.', 'start': 889.389, 'duration': 4.223}, {'end': 895.634, 'text': 'This, like I said, is very important.', 'start': 893.972, 'duration': 1.662}], 'summary': 'The variance of the sum of n different realizations of the same random variable is n times the variance of the original variable, and the standard deviation is the square root of n times the original standard deviation.', 'duration': 34.427, 'max_score': 861.207, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo861207.jpg'}], 'start': 539.318, 'title': 'Dice sums and central limit theorem', 'summary': 'Illustrates probability distributions for dice sums, demonstrating uniform and non-uniform distributions, and discusses the central limit theorem, showcasing the formation of bell curves and changes in standard deviation.', 'chapters': [{'end': 634.746, 'start': 539.318, 'title': 'Probability distributions for dice sums', 'summary': 'Illustrates the calculation of probability distributions for sums of dice, showcasing a uniform distribution as a counting game and highlighting the computation involving non-uniform distributions and the concept of convolution.', 'duration': 95.428, 'highlights': ['The chapter illustrates the calculation of probability distributions for sums of dice.', 'The computation involving non-uniform distributions and the concept of convolution is highlighted.', 'A demonstration of the counting game for a pair of dice and the computation for all possible sums is presented, emphasizing familiar patterns in the results.']}, {'end': 939.353, 'start': 636.894, 'title': 'Understanding central limit theorem', 'summary': 'Discusses the concepts of mean, standard deviation, and their role in the central limit theorem, demonstrating how the distributions of sums tend to form a bell curve and how the standard deviation changes with the size of the sum.', 'duration': 302.459, 'highlights': ['The variance and standard deviation of distributions change with the size of the sum, with the standard deviation increasing in proportion to the square root of the sum size.', 'The mean of the distributions for sums increases linearly with the size of the sum, as demonstrated with the example of rolling dice.', 'The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding how the variance adds and the standard deviation scales with the square root of the sum size in the context of the central limit theorem.']}], 'duration': 400.035, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo539318.jpg', 'highlights': ['The variance and standard deviation change with the size of the sum, increasing in proportion to the square root of the sum size.', 'The chapter illustrates the calculation of probability distributions for sums of dice.', 'The computation involving non-uniform distributions and the concept of convolution is highlighted.', 'The mean of the distributions for sums increases linearly with the size of the sum, as demonstrated with the example of rolling dice.', 'A demonstration of the counting game for a pair of dice and the computation for all possible sums is presented, emphasizing familiar patterns in the results.', 'The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding how the variance adds and the standard deviation scales with the square root of the sum size in the context of the central limit theorem.']}, {'end': 1308.738, 'segs': [{'end': 960.868, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 939.353, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 947.92, 'text': 'considering what the distributions for the many different sums look like and we realign them so that the means line up and we rescale them so that the standard deviations are all one,', 'start': 939.353, 'duration': 8.567}, {'end': 952.804, 'text': 'we still approach that same universal shape, which is kind of mind-boggling.', 'start': 948.641, 'duration': 4.163}, {'end': 960.868, 'text': 'And now, my friends, is probably as good a time as any to finally get into the formula for a normal distribution.', 'start': 955.185, 'duration': 5.683}], 'summary': 'Rescaling distributions to standard deviations of one reveals a universal shape, leading to discussion of the normal distribution formula.', 'duration': 21.515, 'max_score': 939.353, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo939353.jpg'}, {'end': 1015.459, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 980.1, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 985.402, 'text': 'you could do something to make sure the exponent is always negative and growing like taking the negative absolute value.', 'start': 980.1, 'duration': 5.302}, {'end': 989.124, 'text': 'That would give us this kind of awkward sharp point in the middle.', 'start': 986.163, 'duration': 2.961}, {'end': 995.828, 'text': 'but if instead you make that exponent the negative square of x, you get a smoother version of the same thing, which decays in both directions.', 'start': 989.124, 'duration': 6.704}, {'end': 998.089, 'text': 'This gives us the basic bell curve shape.', 'start': 996.388, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 1005.613, 'text': 'Now, if you throw a constant in front of that x and you scale that constant up and down, it lets you stretch and squish the graph horizontally,', 'start': 998.709, 'duration': 6.904}, {'end': 1008.335, 'text': 'allowing you to describe narrow and wider bell curves.', 'start': 1005.613, 'duration': 2.722}, {'end': 1015.459, 'text': "And a quick thing I'd like to point out here is that, based on the rules of exponentiation, as we tweak around that constant c,", 'start': 1008.935, 'duration': 6.524}], 'summary': 'Using negative exponent of x creates a bell curve, with constants allowing horizontal stretching.', 'duration': 35.359, 'max_score': 980.1, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo980100.jpg'}, {'end': 1155.973, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 1089.843, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1097.024, 'text': 'The main point right now is that the area under the entire curve represents the probability that something happens, that some number comes up.', 'start': 1089.843, 'duration': 7.181}, {'end': 1101.105, 'text': 'That should be 1, which is why we want the area under this to be 1.', 'start': 1097.385, 'duration': 3.72}, {'end': 1107.707, 'text': "As it stands with the basic bell curve shape of e to the negative x squared, the area is not 1, it's actually the square root of pi.", 'start': 1101.105, 'duration': 6.602}, {'end': 1109.088, 'text': 'I know right?', 'start': 1108.507, 'duration': 0.581}, {'end': 1110.149, 'text': 'What is pi doing here?', 'start': 1109.268, 'duration': 0.881}, {'end': 1111.45, 'text': 'What does this have to do with circles?', 'start': 1110.229, 'duration': 1.221}, {'end': 1118.036, 'text': "Like I said at the start, I'd love to talk all about that in the next video, but if you can spare your excitement for our purposes right now,", 'start': 1112.07, 'duration': 5.966}, {'end': 1123.101, 'text': 'all it means is that we should divide this function by the square root of pi, and it gives us the area we want.', 'start': 1118.036, 'duration': 5.065}, {'end': 1127.224, 'text': 'Throwing back in the constants we had earlier, the 1 half and the sigma,', 'start': 1123.561, 'duration': 3.663}, {'end': 1132.429, 'text': 'the effect there is to stretch out the graph by a factor of sigma times the square root of 2,', 'start': 1127.224, 'duration': 5.205}, {'end': 1136.27, 'text': 'So we also need to divide out by that in order to make sure it has an area of 1..', 'start': 1132.429, 'duration': 3.841}, {'end': 1142.151, 'text': 'And combining those fractions, the factor out front looks like 1 divided by sigma times the square root of 2 pi.', 'start': 1136.27, 'duration': 5.881}, {'end': 1145.832, 'text': 'This, finally, is a valid probability distribution.', 'start': 1142.851, 'duration': 2.981}, {'end': 1155.973, 'text': 'As we tweak that value sigma, resulting in narrower and wider curves, that constant in the front always guarantees that the area equals 1.', 'start': 1146.492, 'duration': 9.481}], 'summary': "The area under the curve should equal 1, but with the bell curve shape, it's the square root of pi, which is corrected by dividing the function by the square root of pi.", 'duration': 66.13, 'max_score': 1089.843, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1089843.jpg'}, {'end': 1192.246, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1165.161, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 1170.265, 'text': 'And all possible normal distributions are not only parameterized with this value sigma,', 'start': 1165.161, 'duration': 5.104}, {'end': 1174.569, 'text': 'but we also subtract off another constant mu from the variable x.', 'start': 1170.265, 'duration': 4.304}, {'end': 1180.193, 'text': 'And this essentially just lets you slide the graph left and right so that you can prescribe the mean of this distribution.', 'start': 1174.569, 'duration': 5.624}, {'end': 1185.699, 'text': 'So, in short, we have two parameters, one describing the mean, one describing the standard deviation,', 'start': 1180.934, 'duration': 4.765}, {'end': 1189.223, 'text': "and they're all tied together in this big formula involving an e and a pi.", 'start': 1185.699, 'duration': 3.524}, {'end': 1192.246, 'text': 'Now that all of that is on the table,', 'start': 1190.344, 'duration': 1.902}], 'summary': 'Normal distributions are parameterized by mean (mu) and standard deviation (sigma), allowing for shifting of the graph.', 'duration': 27.085, 'max_score': 1165.161, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1165161.jpg'}, {'end': 1227.606, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1203.095, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 1209.798, 'text': 'the resulting distribution will shift according to a growing mean and it slowly spreads out according to a growing standard deviation.', 'start': 1203.095, 'duration': 6.703}, {'end': 1212.319, 'text': 'And putting some actual formulas to it.', 'start': 1210.218, 'duration': 2.101}, {'end': 1219.022, 'text': 'if we know the mean of our underlying random variable, we call it mu and we also know its standard deviation and we call it sigma,', 'start': 1212.319, 'duration': 6.703}, {'end': 1223.944, 'text': 'then the mean for the sum on the bottom will be mu times the size of the sum,', 'start': 1219.022, 'duration': 4.922}, {'end': 1227.606, 'text': 'and the standard deviation will be sigma times the square root of that size.', 'start': 1223.944, 'duration': 3.662}], 'summary': 'Distribution shifts with growing mean and spreads with growing standard deviation.', 'duration': 24.511, 'max_score': 1203.095, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1203095.jpg'}, {'end': 1284.083, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1260.883, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 1267.686, 'text': "where what we'll do is we'll look at the mean that we expect that sum to take and we subtract it off so that our new expression has a mean of zero.", 'start': 1260.883, 'duration': 6.803}, {'end': 1272.989, 'text': "And then we're going to look at the standard deviation we expect of our sum and divide out by that.", 'start': 1268.367, 'duration': 4.622}, {'end': 1279.416, 'text': 'which basically just rescales the units so that the standard deviation of our expression will equal 1.', 'start': 1273.849, 'duration': 5.567}, {'end': 1284.083, 'text': 'This might seem like a more complicated expression, but it actually has a highly readable meaning.', 'start': 1279.416, 'duration': 4.667}], 'summary': 'Rescale expression to have mean of zero and standard deviation of 1.', 'duration': 23.2, 'max_score': 1260.883, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1260883.jpg'}], 'start': 939.353, 'title': 'Normal distribution', 'summary': 'Covers the normal distribution formula, explaining its universal shape, exponential growth and decay, exponentiation rules, and scaling constants. it also delves into the significance of e in probability distributions, the role of sigma and mu, and the standard normal distribution.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1035.055, 'start': 939.353, 'title': 'Understanding normal distribution formula', 'summary': 'Explains the universal shape of normal distribution by aligning means and standard deviations, and gradually builds the formula for a normal distribution using exponential growth and decay, exponentiation rules, and scaling constants.', 'duration': 95.702, 'highlights': ['The chapter discusses how the distributions of different sums approach a universal shape when means are aligned and standard deviations are rescaled, showcasing the concept of normal distribution.', 'Explaining exponential growth and decay, the chapter describes how flipping the graph horizontally by making the exponent negative results in exponential decay, leading to the basic bell curve shape.', 'The chapter explores how adding a constant in front of the exponent allows for horizontal stretching and squishing of the graph, enabling the description of narrow and wider bell curves.']}, {'end': 1308.738, 'start': 1035.756, 'title': 'Understanding normal distribution', 'summary': 'Explains the significance of e in probability distributions, ensuring the area under the curve equals 1, and the role of sigma and mu in parameterizing normal distributions, with a specific emphasis on the standard normal distribution and the impact of adjusting these parameters.', 'duration': 272.982, 'highlights': ['The area under the curve of a probability distribution must equal 1, leading to the need to divide the function by the square root of pi, and adjust the graph by a factor of sigma times the square root of 2 pi, resulting in a valid probability distribution.', 'The standard normal distribution, characterized by sigma=1, plays a crucial role in the lesson, while all normal distributions are parameterized by sigma and mu, allowing for the adjustment of mean and standard deviation.', 'The mean of a sum of random variables is mu times the size of the sum, and the standard deviation is sigma times the square root of that size, aligning with the bell curve description.', 'Modifying the expression to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1 provides a readable meaning, indicating how many standard deviations the sum is from the mean, enabling a clearer understanding of the distribution.']}], 'duration': 369.385, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo939353.jpg', 'highlights': ['The area under the curve of a probability distribution must equal 1, leading to the need to divide the function by the square root of pi', 'The chapter discusses how the distributions of different sums approach a universal shape when means are aligned and standard deviations are rescaled, showcasing the concept of normal distribution', 'The standard normal distribution, characterized by sigma=1, plays a crucial role in the lesson, while all normal distributions are parameterized by sigma and mu, allowing for the adjustment of mean and standard deviation', 'Explaining exponential growth and decay, the chapter describes how flipping the graph horizontally by making the exponent negative results in exponential decay, leading to the basic bell curve shape', 'The chapter explores how adding a constant in front of the exponent allows for horizontal stretching and squishing of the graph, enabling the description of narrow and wider bell curves', 'The mean of a sum of random variables is mu times the size of the sum, and the standard deviation is sigma times the square root of that size, aligning with the bell curve description', 'Modifying the expression to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1 provides a readable meaning, indicating how many standard deviations the sum is from the mean, enabling a clearer understanding of the distribution']}, {'end': 1855.947, 'segs': [{'end': 1333.567, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1308.738, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 1316.925, 'text': "the way I'm representing things on that lower plot is that the area of each one of these bars is telling us the probability of the corresponding value rather than the height.", 'start': 1308.738, 'duration': 8.187}, {'end': 1321.93, 'text': 'You might think of the y-axis as representing not probability, but a kind of probability density.', 'start': 1317.186, 'duration': 4.744}, {'end': 1327.578, 'text': 'The reason for this is to set the stage so that it aligns with the way we interpret continuous distributions,', 'start': 1322.35, 'duration': 5.228}, {'end': 1333.567, 'text': 'where the probability of falling between a range of values is equal to an area under a curve between those values.', 'start': 1327.578, 'duration': 5.989}], 'summary': 'Lower plot represents probability density using area of bars, aligning with interpretation of continuous distributions.', 'duration': 24.829, 'max_score': 1308.738, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1308738.jpg'}, {'end': 1379.284, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1346.458, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 1348.979, 'text': 'like adding together only three such random variables.', 'start': 1346.458, 'duration': 2.521}, {'end': 1352.28, 'text': 'Notice what happens as I change the distribution we start with.', 'start': 1349.439, 'duration': 2.841}, {'end': 1356.261, 'text': 'As it changes, the distribution on the bottom completely changes its shape.', 'start': 1352.72, 'duration': 3.541}, {'end': 1358.222, 'text': "It's very dependent on what we started with.", 'start': 1356.421, 'duration': 1.801}, {'end': 1366.834, 'text': 'If we let the size of our sum get a little bit bigger, say going up to 10, and as I change the distribution for x,', 'start': 1360.666, 'duration': 6.168}, {'end': 1369.157, 'text': 'it largely stays looking like a bell curve.', 'start': 1366.834, 'duration': 2.323}, {'end': 1371.52, 'text': 'but I can find some distributions that get it to change shape.', 'start': 1369.157, 'duration': 2.363}, {'end': 1379.284, 'text': 'For example, the really lopsided one where almost all the probability is in the numbers 1 or 6 results in this kind of spiky bell curve.', 'start': 1372.281, 'duration': 7.003}], 'summary': 'Changing the distribution affects the shape of the sum; increasing the size to 10 maintains a bell curve, but lopsided distributions cause a spiky bell curve.', 'duration': 32.826, 'max_score': 1346.458, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1346458.jpg'}, {'end': 1435.197, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1403.054, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 1410.656, 'text': 'then no matter how I change the distribution for our underlying random variable, it has essentially no effect on the shape of the plot on the bottom.', 'start': 1403.054, 'duration': 7.602}, {'end': 1416.497, 'text': 'No matter where we start, all of the information and nuance for the distribution of x gets washed away,', 'start': 1411.136, 'duration': 5.361}, {'end': 1427.759, 'text': 'and we tend towards this single universal shape described by a very elegant function for the standard normal distribution 1 over square root of 2 pi times e to the negative x squared over 2..', 'start': 1416.497, 'duration': 11.262}, {'end': 1430.747, 'text': 'This, this right here is what the central limit theorem is all about.', 'start': 1427.759, 'duration': 2.988}, {'end': 1435.197, 'text': 'Almost nothing you can do to this initial distribution changes the shape we tend towards.', 'start': 1431.107, 'duration': 4.09}], 'summary': 'Central limit theorem states distribution tends towards standard normal distribution.', 'duration': 32.143, 'max_score': 1403.054, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1403054.jpg'}, {'end': 1687.007, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1657.332, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1663.458, 'text': 'and that interval we found is now telling you what range you were expecting to see for that empirical average.', 'start': 1657.332, 'duration': 6.126}, {'end': 1669.303, 'text': "In other words, you might expect it to be around 3.5, that's the expected value for a die roll.", 'start': 1664.358, 'duration': 4.945}, {'end': 1672.986, 'text': "but what's much less obvious, and what the central limit theorem lets you compute,", 'start': 1669.303, 'duration': 3.683}, {'end': 1676.489, 'text': "is how close to that expected value you'll reasonably find yourself.", 'start': 1672.986, 'duration': 3.503}, {'end': 1678.221, 'text': 'In particular,', 'start': 1677.56, 'duration': 0.661}, {'end': 1687.007, 'text': "it's worth your time to take a moment mulling over what the standard deviation for this empirical average is and what happens to it as you look at a bigger and bigger sample of die rolls.", 'start': 1678.221, 'duration': 8.786}], 'summary': 'Central limit theorem helps compute range around expected value for die roll average.', 'duration': 29.675, 'max_score': 1657.332, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1657332.jpg'}, {'end': 1855.947, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1834.37, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 1841.174, 'text': 'even if the first two assumptions hold, it is very much a possibility that the thing you tend towards is not actually a normal distribution.', 'start': 1834.37, 'duration': 6.804}, {'end': 1847.537, 'text': "If you've understood everything up to this point, you now have a very strong foundation in what the central limit theorem is all about.", 'start': 1842.334, 'duration': 5.203}, {'end': 1854.846, 'text': "And next up, I'd like to explain why it is that this particular function is the thing that we tend towards and why it has a pi in it,", 'start': 1848.197, 'duration': 6.649}, {'end': 1855.947, 'text': 'what it has to do with circles.', 'start': 1854.846, 'duration': 1.101}], 'summary': 'Understanding the central limit theorem provides a strong foundation, even if the distribution is not normal.', 'duration': 21.577, 'max_score': 1834.37, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1834370.jpg'}], 'start': 1308.738, 'title': 'Probability distributions and central limit theorem', 'summary': 'Covers probability representation, density, and distribution impact, emphasizing plot stability with increasing random variables. it also explains the central limit theorem, its application, assumptions, and implications on empirical average, with a focus on the 95% confidence interval of the sum of 100 die rolls.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1416.497, 'start': 1308.738, 'title': 'Understanding probability distributions and the central limit theorem', 'summary': 'Explains the concept of representing probability using area, introduces the idea of probability density, and illustrates the impact of changing the distribution on the shape of the plot, emphasizing the stability of the plot as the sum of random variables increases.', 'duration': 107.759, 'highlights': ['The area of each bar in the plot represents the probability of the corresponding value, aligning with continuous distributions and ensuring that the total area of all bars is 1.', 'As the distribution of the underlying random variable changes, the shape of the plot on the bottom completely changes, highlighting the dependence on the initial distribution.', "Increasing the sum of random variables to 50 results in the plot's shape being unaffected by changes in the distribution, demonstrating the stability of the plot as the sum grows."]}, {'end': 1855.947, 'start': 1416.497, 'title': 'Central limit theorem and normal distribution', 'summary': 'Explains the central limit theorem, its mathematical statement, practical application with a dice example, and the assumptions behind it, highlighting the 95% confidence interval of the sum of 100 die rolls and the implications of the theorem on the empirical average.', 'duration': 439.45, 'highlights': ['The 95% confidence interval for the sum of 100 die rolls is between 316 and 384, demonstrating the practical application of the central limit theorem. (95% confidence interval: 316-384)', 'The central limit theorem enables the computation of the expected range for the empirical average of 100 die rolls, providing insight into the closeness to the expected value. (Expected range for empirical average)', "The three assumptions behind the central limit theorem are independence of variables, identical distribution, and finite variance, highlighting the necessity of these conditions for the theorem's validity. (Assumptions: independence, identical distribution, finite variance)", 'The standard normal distribution is described by a very elegant function, 1 over square root of 2 pi times e to the negative x squared over 2, emphasizing its universal shape. (Description of standard normal distribution)']}], 'duration': 547.209, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/zeJD6dqJ5lo/pics/zeJD6dqJ5lo1308738.jpg', 'highlights': ['The 95% confidence interval for the sum of 100 die rolls is between 316 and 384, demonstrating the practical application of the central limit theorem. (95% confidence interval: 316-384)', 'The area of each bar in the plot represents the probability of the corresponding value, aligning with continuous distributions and ensuring that the total area of all bars is 1.', "Increasing the sum of random variables to 50 results in the plot's shape being unaffected by changes in the distribution, demonstrating the stability of the plot as the sum grows.", 'The central limit theorem enables the computation of the expected range for the empirical average of 100 die rolls, providing insight into the closeness to the expected value. (Expected range for empirical average)', "The three assumptions behind the central limit theorem are independence of variables, identical distribution, and finite variance, highlighting the necessity of these conditions for the theorem's validity. (Assumptions: independence, identical distribution, finite variance)", 'As the distribution of the underlying random variable changes, the shape of the plot on the bottom completely changes, highlighting the dependence on the initial distribution.', 'The standard normal distribution is described by a very elegant function, 1 over square root of 2 pi times e to the negative x squared over 2, emphasizing its universal shape.']}], 'highlights': ['The 95% confidence interval for the sum of 100 die rolls is between 316 and 384, demonstrating the practical application of the central limit theorem. (95% confidence interval: 316-384)', 'The central limit theorem enables the computation of the expected range for the empirical average of 100 die rolls, providing insight into the closeness to the expected value. (Expected range for empirical average)', 'The simulations demonstrate how diverse distributions converge to a bell curve shape as the number of samples increases', 'The impact of increasing sample size on the distribution shape is showcased through parallel simulations', 'The emergence of symmetric distributions is emphasized', 'The central limit theorem describes how the distribution of the sum of random variables tends towards a bell curve as the size of the sum increases, illustrated through the example of a Galton board with the goal of making the statement more quantitative.', 'The chapter aims to make the central limit theorem more quantitative and applicable to making predictions, such as finding a range of values with 95% certainty for the sum of 100 die rolls, regardless of the fairness of the die.', 'The area under the curve of a probability distribution must equal 1, leading to the need to divide the function by the square root of pi', 'The chapter discusses how the distributions of different sums approach a universal shape when means are aligned and standard deviations are rescaled, showcasing the concept of normal distribution', 'The standard normal distribution, characterized by sigma=1, plays a crucial role in the lesson, while all normal distributions are parameterized by sigma and mu, allowing for the adjustment of mean and standard deviation', 'The mean of a sum of random variables is mu times the size of the sum, and the standard deviation is sigma times the square root of that size, aligning with the bell curve description', 'The variance and standard deviation change with the size of the sum, increasing in proportion to the square root of the sum size.', 'The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding how the variance adds and the standard deviation scales with the square root of the sum size in the context of the central limit theorem.', 'The normal distribution is prevalent in probability and observed in various contexts.', 'The Galton board demonstrates making precise statements about a large number of events.', 'The chapter previews upcoming lessons on the central limit theorem.']}