title
4. Molecular Genetics I
description
(April 5, 2010) Robert Sapolsky makes interdisciplinary connections between behavioral biology and molecular genetic influences. He relates protein synthesis and point mutations to microevolutionary change, and discusses conflicting theories of gradualism and punctuated equilibrium and the influence of epigenetics on development theories.
Stanford University
http://www.stanford.edu
Stanford Department of Biology
http://biology.stanford.edu/
Stanford University Channel on YouTube
http://www.youtube.com/stanford
detail
{'title': '4. Molecular Genetics I', 'heatmap': [{'end': 1464.309, 'start': 1399.736, 'weight': 1}], 'summary': '《4. molecular genetics i》 covers genetic influence on behavior, protein function, dna mutations, genetic disorders, hormonal mutation, genetic selection, genetic evolution, and gene expression regulation with specific insights on various genetic concepts and their impact, including criticism of existing notions and the implications on behavior and evolution.', 'chapters': [{'end': 278.89, 'segs': [{'end': 75.443, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 30.162, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 34.244, 'text': 'we will spend time trashing it from the standpoint of a different discipline.', 'start': 30.162, 'duration': 4.082}, {'end': 36.306, 'text': 'This is our first one of these.', 'start': 34.645, 'duration': 1.661}, {'end': 46.357, 'text': "And the whole point of this jump is to show on a certain level exactly where one discipline's notion of an explanation ends, another one begins.", 'start': 37.106, 'duration': 9.251}, {'end': 51.843, 'text': 'And what this one will be about is how evolution works down on a molecular level.', 'start': 46.878, 'duration': 4.965}, {'end': 53.926, 'text': 'Where did we leave off?', 'start': 52.484, 'duration': 1.442}, {'end': 56.689, 'text': 'after finishing our overview of the evolution of behavior?', 'start': 53.926, 'duration': 2.763}, {'end': 63.914, 'text': 'We finished with a bunch of criticisms at the end, criticizing what some of the basic tenets were of that view.', 'start': 57.049, 'duration': 6.865}, {'end': 67.177, 'text': 'First off, that notion of heritability.', 'start': 64.135, 'duration': 3.042}, {'end': 75.443, 'text': 'Heritability, assuming that all sorts of behaviors have a genetic component, have a genetic basis, have a genetic cause.', 'start': 67.998, 'duration': 7.445}], 'summary': 'The discussion covers criticism of heritability in genetic basis of behaviors.', 'duration': 45.281, 'max_score': 30.162, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o30162.jpg'}, {'end': 133.972, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 100.276, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 103.537, 'text': 'The counter view being the world of spandrels.', 'start': 100.276, 'duration': 3.261}, {'end': 107.659, 'text': 'A lot of the time, stuff gets carried along as baggage.', 'start': 103.737, 'duration': 3.922}, {'end': 114.121, 'text': "Things evolving aren't necessarily things that have been sculpted into being as adaptive as possible.", 'start': 108.119, 'duration': 6.002}, {'end': 123.006, 'text': "Another critique, and one that's also central today, is that whole emphasis on the gradualism on small incremental changes.", 'start': 114.981, 'duration': 8.025}, {'end': 133.972, 'text': 'And what I alluded to at the end the other day is going to see a viewpoint where something very, very different is proposed to be going on,', 'start': 123.806, 'duration': 10.166}], 'summary': 'Critique of gradualism and emphasis on small incremental changes in evolution.', 'duration': 33.696, 'max_score': 100.276, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o100276.jpg'}, {'end': 167.481, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 142.117, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 151.926, 'text': 'OK So starting off, what we also finished with was a notion that there are political agendas that run through every aspect of this subject.', 'start': 142.117, 'duration': 9.809}, {'end': 163.837, 'text': 'And if that very first lecture back when talking about how some of these viewpoints influence, who gets a lobotomy, who winds up exterminated,', 'start': 152.267, 'duration': 11.57}, {'end': 167.481, 'text': 'who winds up being viewed as educatable or uneducatable, et cetera?', 'start': 163.837, 'duration': 3.644}], 'summary': 'Political agendas influence decisions on lobotomies and education.', 'duration': 25.364, 'max_score': 142.117, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o142117.jpg'}, {'end': 271.525, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 236.39, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 238.691, 'text': 'They explain what we see with these behaviors.', 'start': 236.39, 'duration': 2.301}, {'end': 243.112, 'text': "And until you can give me a model that does even a better job, I'm sticking with this.", 'start': 238.991, 'duration': 4.121}, {'end': 249.053, 'text': 'And this counts as my evidence for a genetic component to this set of behaviors.', 'start': 243.412, 'duration': 5.641}, {'end': 257.076, 'text': "And what we'll see is that's exactly where the molecular biologists decide that they finally have gotten free of people doing.", 'start': 249.734, 'duration': 7.342}, {'end': 260.777, 'text': "I don't know poetry, for all the science in it.", 'start': 257.076, 'duration': 3.701}, {'end': 263.759, 'text': 'My god, that counts as science.', 'start': 260.837, 'duration': 2.922}, {'end': 271.525, 'text': 'coming up with a bunch of these rules there and saying until you come up with fancier rules or a more pleasing, just so story, I win.', 'start': 263.759, 'duration': 7.766}], 'summary': 'Genetic component to behaviors explained with evidence counts as science.', 'duration': 35.135, 'max_score': 236.39, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o236390.jpg'}], 'start': 5.017, 'title': 'Genetic influence on behavior', 'summary': 'Discusses the shift towards a molecular stance, criticizing notions of heritability, adaptation, gradualism, and political agendas affecting viewpoints in behavioral science.', 'chapters': [{'end': 123.006, 'start': 5.017, 'title': 'Evolution on a molecular level', 'summary': 'Discusses the leap from one discipline to another, focusing on the evolution of behavior and criticizing the notions of heritability, adaptation, and gradualism.', 'duration': 117.989, 'highlights': ['The chapter focuses on criticizing the notions of heritability, adaptation, and gradualism in the evolution of behavior. The transcript discusses criticisms of the basic tenets of evolutionary behavior, including heritability, adaptation, and gradualism.', 'Emphasis on the gradualism on small incremental changes is critiqued. The chapter critiques the emphasis on small incremental changes in evolutionary behavior, highlighting the critique of gradualism.', "Exploring how evolution works down on a molecular level is the main focus. The chapter delves into the molecular level of evolution, exploring how it works and where one discipline's explanation ends and another begins."]}, {'end': 278.89, 'start': 123.806, 'title': 'Genetic influence in behavioral science', 'summary': 'Discusses the influence of genetic factors on behavior, highlighting the political agendas affecting viewpoints and the shift towards a molecular stance in the field.', 'duration': 155.084, 'highlights': ['The chapter emphasizes the influence of political agendas on viewpoints in behavioral science, impacting decisions such as who gets a lobotomy or is viewed as educatable or uneducatable.', "It explores the sociobiologist and evolutionary psychologist's tenets regarding heritability and genetic influence on behaviors, with a strong emphasis on structured models built around genetics to explain behaviors.", 'The shift towards a molecular stance in behavioral science is highlighted, with contempt towards previous approaches that lacked molecular evidence and were considered less scientific.']}], 'duration': 273.873, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5017.jpg', 'highlights': ['The chapter critiques the emphasis on small incremental changes in evolutionary behavior, highlighting the critique of gradualism.', "The chapter delves into the molecular level of evolution, exploring how it works and where one discipline's explanation ends and another begins.", 'The shift towards a molecular stance in behavioral science is highlighted, with contempt towards previous approaches that lacked molecular evidence and were considered less scientific.', 'The chapter focuses on criticizing the notions of heritability, adaptation, and gradualism in the evolution of behavior.', 'The chapter emphasizes the influence of political agendas on viewpoints in behavioral science, impacting decisions such as who gets a lobotomy or is viewed as educatable or uneducatable.']}, {'end': 958.265, 'segs': [{'end': 373.649, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 349.562, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 355.624, 'text': "Proteins are, in lots of ways, the structurally most important things you've got making up cells.", 'start': 349.562, 'duration': 6.062}, {'end': 357.644, 'text': 'Proteins have endless roles.', 'start': 355.984, 'duration': 1.66}, {'end': 360.165, 'text': 'Proteins hold the shapes of cells together.', 'start': 357.764, 'duration': 2.401}, {'end': 366.146, 'text': 'Proteins form messengers, hormones, neurotransmitters, all of this to come.', 'start': 360.565, 'duration': 5.581}, {'end': 371.547, 'text': 'Proteins are the enzymes that do all sorts of the most important stuff.', 'start': 367.266, 'duration': 4.281}, {'end': 373.649, 'text': 'proteins, et cetera, et cetera, et cetera.', 'start': 371.927, 'duration': 1.722}], 'summary': 'Proteins play crucial roles in cell structure, function, and signaling.', 'duration': 24.087, 'max_score': 349.562, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o349562.jpg'}, {'end': 502.364, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 450.609, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 458.156, 'text': 'Genes at the level of DNA, sequences of DNA, first specify an intermediate form called RNA.', 'start': 450.609, 'duration': 7.547}, {'end': 462.22, 'text': "And it's from that that you get the readout forming the proteins.", 'start': 458.597, 'duration': 3.623}, {'end': 468.016, 'text': 'Now everything about the function of this is built out of the following sequence.', 'start': 463.393, 'duration': 4.623}, {'end': 473.319, 'text': 'If you know the sequence of DNA, you will know the sequence of RNA.', 'start': 468.676, 'duration': 4.643}, {'end': 476.225, 'text': 'You will know the amino acid sequence.', 'start': 474.264, 'duration': 1.961}, {'end': 479.448, 'text': 'You will know the protein that thus is made.', 'start': 477.046, 'duration': 2.402}, {'end': 482.35, 'text': 'You will know the shape of the protein.', 'start': 480.308, 'duration': 2.042}, {'end': 485.312, 'text': 'And you will then know the function of the protein.', 'start': 482.87, 'duration': 2.442}, {'end': 491.276, 'text': 'And that is this critical link between what DNA genes, evolution,', 'start': 486.052, 'duration': 5.224}, {'end': 496.7, 'text': 'blah blah are about and the actual things that pop out in the other end and do something,', 'start': 491.276, 'duration': 5.424}, {'end': 502.364, 'text': 'for the very critical reason that everything about protein function is built around shape.', 'start': 496.7, 'duration': 5.664}], 'summary': 'Dna sequence determines rna, amino acid, protein, shape, and function, critical for protein function.', 'duration': 51.755, 'max_score': 450.609, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o450609.jpg'}, {'end': 620.488, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 597.127, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 604.594, 'text': 'All that means is different amino acids gets pulled into different positions by their relationship with water.', 'start': 597.127, 'duration': 7.467}, {'end': 611.62, 'text': 'And thus, a string of amino acids, the shape it winds up getting with is determined by that amino acid sequence.', 'start': 604.714, 'duration': 6.906}, {'end': 618.707, 'text': "And there's a whole world of really interesting, horrible neurological diseases called prion diseases,", 'start': 612.341, 'duration': 6.366}, {'end': 620.488, 'text': 'which show that everything I just said is wrong.', 'start': 618.707, 'duration': 1.781}], 'summary': 'Amino acid sequence determines shape; prion diseases prove this wrong.', 'duration': 23.361, 'max_score': 597.127, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o597127.jpg'}, {'end': 714.272, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 689.095, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 698.966, 'text': 'What enzymes do is accelerate vastly, a gazillion times over the speed with which these happen catalyze reactions.', 'start': 689.095, 'duration': 9.871}, {'end': 700.227, 'text': 'what do I mean by that??', 'start': 698.966, 'duration': 1.261}, {'end': 705.429, 'text': "For our purposes, they can take two things that aren't connected and stick them together.", 'start': 700.507, 'duration': 4.922}, {'end': 708.43, 'text': 'Or they can take one thing and break it apart.', 'start': 705.929, 'duration': 2.501}, {'end': 711.131, 'text': "For our purposes, that's what enzymes do.", 'start': 708.89, 'duration': 2.241}, {'end': 714.272, 'text': 'Virtually every enzyme out there is a protein.', 'start': 711.311, 'duration': 2.961}], 'summary': 'Enzymes accelerate reactions a gazillion times, connecting or breaking substances, mainly proteins.', 'duration': 25.177, 'max_score': 689.095, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o689095.jpg'}, {'end': 958.265, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 931.375, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 938.837, 'text': 'They pop up, a class of enzymes that could take the RNA information and turn it back into DNA viral information.', 'start': 931.375, 'duration': 7.462}, {'end': 940.257, 'text': 'And then it does its thing.', 'start': 939.177, 'duration': 1.08}, {'end': 942.358, 'text': 'Huge blow to the central.', 'start': 940.618, 'duration': 1.74}, {'end': 950.7, 'text': "Here's information running from an RNA virus somehow being reversed back to a DNA form.", 'start': 942.458, 'duration': 8.242}, {'end': 953.401, 'text': 'And thus, these are called retroviruses.', 'start': 950.78, 'duration': 2.621}, {'end': 956.683, 'text': 'inserting the DNA, and off they go from there.', 'start': 954.241, 'duration': 2.442}, {'end': 958.265, 'text': 'So this was a major blow.', 'start': 956.943, 'duration': 1.322}], 'summary': 'Discovery of enzymes converting rna to dna in retroviruses, causing significant impact.', 'duration': 26.89, 'max_score': 931.375, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o931375.jpg'}], 'start': 279.27, 'title': 'Protein function and central dogma', 'summary': 'Discusses the role of genes in evolution, the importance of proteins in cellular functions, the link between dna sequence and protein shape, along with the violation of central dogma by viruses in the 1970s.', 'chapters': [{'end': 527.838, 'start': 279.27, 'title': 'Evolution and protein function', 'summary': 'Discusses the role of genes in evolution, the importance of proteins in cellular functions, and the critical link between dna sequence, protein shape, and function.', 'duration': 248.568, 'highlights': ['Genes specify proteins, which are made up of 20 different amino acids coded for by DNA sequences of three nucleotides each. The process of gene coding for proteins involves a sequence of DNA specifying an intermediate form called RNA, which then determines the amino acid sequence and ultimately the protein shape and function.', 'Proteins play crucial roles in cell structure, messengers, enzymes, and overall cellular function. Proteins are essential for maintaining cell structures, acting as messengers, hormones, neurotransmitters, and enzymes that perform various critical tasks within the cell.', 'The chapter emphasizes the critical link between DNA sequence, protein shape, and function, highlighting the importance of protein structure in cellular activities. The discussion underscores the significance of understanding the relationship between DNA sequence and protein shape as it directly impacts the functionality of the protein within the cell.']}, {'end': 958.265, 'start': 527.838, 'title': 'Proteins and central dogma', 'summary': 'Explores the critical role of protein shape and its relationship with dna sequences, highlighting the central dogma of life being violated by viruses in the 1970s.', 'duration': 430.427, 'highlights': ["Proteins' critical role in shaping biological functions and neurotransmitter interactions Proteins drive the critical relationship in the shape between hormones and neurotransmitters, where there is a critical relationship in the shape between the messenger and the receptor.", "Amino acids' interactions with water determining protein shape The shape of a string of amino acids is determined by their relationship with water, where different amino acids have different degrees of attraction to or repulsion by water.", "Enzymes' function in catalyzing reactions and altering protein shape Enzymes accelerate reactions vastly, catalyzing reactions that would be very rare events, and can change shape as a function of their job, such as pulling apart something or putting something together.", 'Central dogma of life being violated by viruses in the 1970s Viruses, including retroviruses, have been shown to reverse RNA information back to a DNA form, violating the canonical flow of information from DNA to RNA to protein.']}], 'duration': 678.995, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o279270.jpg', 'highlights': ['Genes specify proteins through DNA sequences of three nucleotides, determining protein shape and function.', 'Proteins are essential for maintaining cell structures, acting as messengers, hormones, neurotransmitters, and enzymes.', 'The critical link between DNA sequence, protein shape, and function is emphasized, impacting cellular activities.', 'Proteins drive critical relationships in the shape between hormones and neurotransmitters, affecting biological functions.', "Amino acids' interactions with water determine protein shape, influenced by their relationship with water.", 'Enzymes accelerate reactions vastly, catalyzing reactions and altering protein shape as a function of their job.', 'Viruses, including retroviruses, violate the central dogma of life by reversing RNA information back to a DNA form.']}, {'end': 1569.819, 'segs': [{'end': 1194.135, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1169.719, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 1176.443, 'text': 'And in general, where you get that redundancy, where you get the differences in three triplets,', 'start': 1169.719, 'duration': 6.724}, {'end': 1183.708, 'text': "a couple of different triplets that code for the same amino acid, they'll tend to differ in the middle one of the three letters.", 'start': 1176.443, 'duration': 7.265}, {'end': 1189.151, 'text': "That's the easiest one to have a change where it doesn't change the overall consequence of it.", 'start': 1184.088, 'duration': 5.063}, {'end': 1191.933, 'text': 'So you will tend to have redundancy.', 'start': 1189.692, 'duration': 2.241}, {'end': 1194.135, 'text': 'Each amino acid is coded for.', 'start': 1192.293, 'duration': 1.842}], 'summary': 'Genetic redundancy occurs with different triplets coding for the same amino acid, resulting in variation in the middle letter.', 'duration': 24.416, 'max_score': 1169.719, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1169719.jpg'}, {'end': 1398.956, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1373.8, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1380.807, 'text': 'So you have point mutations, which can have major consequences or can have none whatsoever and anything in between.', 'start': 1373.8, 'duration': 7.007}, {'end': 1382.448, 'text': 'You have point mutations.', 'start': 1381.167, 'duration': 1.281}, {'end': 1384.509, 'text': 'And then you have insertion and deletion.', 'start': 1382.748, 'duration': 1.761}, {'end': 1386.95, 'text': 'The last two tend to have big consequences.', 'start': 1384.569, 'duration': 2.381}, {'end': 1392.613, 'text': 'So all of this is built around one single base pair changing.', 'start': 1387.47, 'duration': 5.143}, {'end': 1398.956, 'text': 'And all of this is built around, thus, one single protein changing its shape.', 'start': 1393.353, 'duration': 5.603}], 'summary': "Point mutations can have varying consequences, while insertion and deletion mutations tend to have major impacts, all stemming from changes in a single base pair and resulting in changes to a single protein's shape.", 'duration': 25.156, 'max_score': 1373.8, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1373800.jpg'}, {'end': 1464.309, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 1399.736, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 1404.798, 'text': 'And thus this world of micromutations, single spots that are mutating.', 'start': 1399.736, 'duration': 5.062}, {'end': 1414.361, 'text': "what this tends to do and this is an important concept for what's to come what it does is it changes how well the protein does its job.", 'start': 1404.798, 'duration': 9.563}, {'end': 1421.064, 'text': 'It changes the efficacy of that protein.', 'start': 1417.743, 'duration': 3.321}, {'end': 1425.637, 'text': 'by changing the shape a little bit, by changing it dramatically, all of that.', 'start': 1421.994, 'duration': 3.643}, {'end': 1436.384, 'text': 'And we can see back to our lock and key where, if, thanks to a mutation, this has a slightly different shape,', 'start': 1425.997, 'duration': 10.387}, {'end': 1446.031, 'text': 'it will fit into the lock slightly less effectively, may stay in there for a shorter time before floating off and thus send less of a message.', 'start': 1436.384, 'duration': 9.647}, {'end': 1453.997, 'text': "On the other hand, if you've got a deletion insertion that dramatically changes the shape of this, you will change how well this protein does its job.", 'start': 1446.929, 'duration': 7.068}, {'end': 1459.123, 'text': "It won't do its job at all because it's going to wind up with a completely different shape and not fit in there whatsoever.", 'start': 1454.278, 'duration': 4.845}, {'end': 1464.309, 'text': 'What we have here is a world of mutations which are changing the function of one protein at a time.', 'start': 1459.464, 'duration': 4.845}], 'summary': 'Micromutations change protein efficacy, altering function one at a time.', 'duration': 64.573, 'max_score': 1399.736, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1399736.jpg'}, {'end': 1471.585, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1446.929, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 1453.997, 'text': "On the other hand, if you've got a deletion insertion that dramatically changes the shape of this, you will change how well this protein does its job.", 'start': 1446.929, 'duration': 7.068}, {'end': 1459.123, 'text': "It won't do its job at all because it's going to wind up with a completely different shape and not fit in there whatsoever.", 'start': 1454.278, 'duration': 4.845}, {'end': 1464.309, 'text': 'What we have here is a world of mutations which are changing the function of one protein at a time.', 'start': 1459.464, 'duration': 4.845}, {'end': 1471.585, 'text': 'That is microevolutionary change.', 'start': 1468.484, 'duration': 3.101}], 'summary': 'Mutations altering protein function drive microevolution.', 'duration': 24.656, 'max_score': 1446.929, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1446929.jpg'}, {'end': 1577.205, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1548.181, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 1551.804, 'text': 'And thus, you have a disease, PKU, phenylketonuria.', 'start': 1548.181, 'duration': 3.623}, {'end': 1555.086, 'text': 'Very, very common genetic disorder.', 'start': 1552.484, 'duration': 2.602}, {'end': 1564.114, 'text': 'And this is one where The outcome is a small mutation that has completely knocked this enzyme out of business, this enzyme,', 'start': 1555.487, 'duration': 8.627}, {'end': 1567.577, 'text': 'which was able to turn the phenylalanine into something safer.', 'start': 1564.114, 'duration': 3.463}, {'end': 1569.819, 'text': 'This is not a subtle outcome.', 'start': 1568.057, 'duration': 1.762}, {'end': 1577.205, 'text': 'Have untreated PKU, and your reproductive success by the rules of evolution is going to be real down near zero.', 'start': 1570.099, 'duration': 7.106}], 'summary': 'Pku is a common genetic disorder caused by a small mutation that knocks out an enzyme, leading to severe reproductive limitations.', 'duration': 29.024, 'max_score': 1548.181, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1548181.jpg'}], 'start': 958.345, 'title': 'Dna mutations and their impact', 'summary': 'Explores dna mutations, including micromutations and point mutations, and their consequences in genetic evolution and protein function. it discusses how single point mutations can have neutral, moderate, or major consequences and how mutations lead to diseases like phenylketonuria.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1323.348, 'start': 958.345, 'title': 'Dna mutations and genetic evolution', 'summary': 'Explores the impact of dna mutations on genetic evolution, focusing on micromutations, point mutations, and their consequences in classical realms of genetics and evolutionary change, where a single point mutation can have neutral, moderate, or major/disastrous consequences.', 'duration': 365.003, 'highlights': ['Point mutations can have neutral, moderate, or major consequences based on the change in amino acid coding. Point mutations can result in a neutral consequence if the change in amino acid coding is minimal, moderate consequence if it produces a different amino acid with similar properties, or major consequence if it dramatically changes the protein shape and function.', 'The redundancy in the genetic code allows for some point mutations to have no consequence if the triplet codes for the same amino acid. The redundancy in the genetic code, where multiple triplet sequences code for the same amino acid, can lead to point mutations having no consequence if the changed triplet still codes for the same amino acid.', 'The impact of a single point mutation can be significant, potentially leading to a completely different protein shape and message. A single point mutation can dramatically change the meaning of a protein, leading to a completely different protein shape and potentially a very different message, with major consequences.']}, {'end': 1569.819, 'start': 1324.128, 'title': 'Classical mutations and protein function', 'summary': 'Discusses classical mutations in genetics, including deletion, insertion, and point mutations, and their impact on protein function, leading to diseases like phenylketonuria.', 'duration': 245.691, 'highlights': ['Deletion and insertion mutations have major consequences in changing protein function, leading to diseases like phenylketonuria. Deletion and insertion mutations have major consequences in changing protein function, leading to diseases like phenylketonuria.', 'Point mutations can have varying consequences on protein function, ranging from major to none at all. Point mutations can have varying consequences on protein function, ranging from major to none at all.', 'A mutation in the gene coding for the enzyme responsible for converting phenylalanine into a safer form leads to phenylketonuria, a common genetic disorder with severe consequences. A mutation in the gene coding for the enzyme responsible for converting phenylalanine into a safer form leads to phenylketonuria, a common genetic disorder with severe consequences.']}], 'duration': 611.474, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o958345.jpg', 'highlights': ['Point mutations can have neutral, moderate, or major consequences based on the change in amino acid coding.', 'The redundancy in the genetic code allows for some point mutations to have no consequence if the triplet codes for the same amino acid.', 'A single point mutation can dramatically change the meaning of a protein, leading to a completely different protein shape and potentially a very different message, with major consequences.', 'Deletion and insertion mutations have major consequences in changing protein function, leading to diseases like phenylketonuria.', 'A mutation in the gene coding for the enzyme responsible for converting phenylalanine into a safer form leads to phenylketonuria, a common genetic disorder with severe consequences.']}, {'end': 1957.731, 'segs': [{'end': 1596.006, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1570.099, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1577.205, 'text': 'Have untreated PKU, and your reproductive success by the rules of evolution is going to be real down near zero.', 'start': 1570.099, 'duration': 7.106}, {'end': 1580.547, 'text': 'This destroys the nervous system very rapidly after birth.', 'start': 1577.525, 'duration': 3.022}, {'end': 1582.189, 'text': "So that's dramatic.", 'start': 1581.388, 'duration': 0.801}, {'end': 1584.575, 'text': "Here's another dramatic one.", 'start': 1583.254, 'duration': 1.321}, {'end': 1590.701, 'text': 'And this one, anyone who took BioCore, I always bring this one in as a big hormone crowd pleaser.', 'start': 1585.096, 'duration': 5.605}, {'end': 1596.006, 'text': "But here's an interesting thing that can go wrong with any child you might eventually have.", 'start': 1591.042, 'duration': 4.964}], 'summary': 'Untreated pku drastically reduces reproductive success and rapidly destroys the nervous system after birth.', 'duration': 25.907, 'max_score': 1570.099, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1570099.jpg'}, {'end': 1789.397, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1759.515, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 1765.336, 'text': 'And what it does is it changed the shape of the androgen receptor, the testosterone receptor.', 'start': 1759.515, 'duration': 5.821}, {'end': 1769.237, 'text': "And at that point, it doesn't matter how much testosterone is floating around.", 'start': 1765.636, 'duration': 3.601}, {'end': 1771.798, 'text': 'Those target cells are not going to listen.', 'start': 1769.497, 'duration': 2.301}, {'end': 1774.329, 'text': 'This is consequential.', 'start': 1772.728, 'duration': 1.601}, {'end': 1776.41, 'text': 'This is a major consequence.', 'start': 1774.709, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 1779.231, 'text': 'This is one of changing gender phenotype.', 'start': 1776.73, 'duration': 2.501}, {'end': 1789.397, 'text': 'And there is a long and at times absolutely appalling history of what has been done with individuals who have testicular feminization syndrome.', 'start': 1779.411, 'duration': 9.986}], 'summary': "Mutation changes androgen receptor shape, impacting testosterone's effect, leading to gender phenotype change and historical implications.", 'duration': 29.882, 'max_score': 1759.515, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1759515.jpg'}, {'end': 1880.609, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1851.665, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 1855.83, 'text': 'the receptor that responds to this messenger here.', 'start': 1851.665, 'duration': 4.165}, {'end': 1864.698, 'text': "instead, it's back way up there, in the testes, a bunch of these enzymes which go through a bunch of steps and make testosterone biosynthetic enzymes,", 'start': 1855.83, 'duration': 8.868}, {'end': 1866.259, 'text': 'there, proteins, genes, once again.', 'start': 1864.698, 'duration': 1.561}, {'end': 1871.042, 'text': "So you've got a mutation in one of those critical biosynthetic enzymes.", 'start': 1866.62, 'duration': 4.422}, {'end': 1873.924, 'text': "And it's not a huge one.", 'start': 1871.583, 'duration': 2.341}, {'end': 1875.605, 'text': 'The shape is a little bit off.', 'start': 1874.004, 'duration': 1.601}, {'end': 1880.609, 'text': 'Its efficacy, the effectiveness with which it makes testosterone is down a bit.', 'start': 1875.706, 'duration': 4.903}], 'summary': 'A mutation in biosynthetic enzymes reduces testosterone production.', 'duration': 28.944, 'max_score': 1851.665, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1851665.jpg'}, {'end': 1924.665, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1894.777, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 1901.305, 'text': 'in most cases someone who is genetically male, someone who never saw a whole lot of testosterone during fetal life,', 'start': 1894.777, 'duration': 6.528}, {'end': 1905.19, 'text': 'way below the threshold for the testosterone having any effects.', 'start': 1901.305, 'duration': 3.885}, {'end': 1914.781, 'text': 'So the person is born phenotypically female female in appearance, female in external genitalia and not internal,', 'start': 1906.178, 'duration': 8.603}, {'end': 1916.842, 'text': 'back to those testicular feminized males.', 'start': 1914.781, 'duration': 2.061}, {'end': 1924.665, 'text': "What you find there is there's a vagina which goes nowhere because there's no ovaries waiting somewhere above that.", 'start': 1917.182, 'duration': 7.483}], 'summary': 'Genetically male individuals with low fetal testosterone levels may be born phenotypically female, lacking internal female reproductive organs.', 'duration': 29.888, 'max_score': 1894.777, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1894777.jpg'}, {'end': 1965.474, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1939.334, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 1945.279, 'text': 'you have a daughter who is perfectly healthy, who is going to have a long, happy, healthy life and simply cannot reproduce.', 'start': 1939.334, 'duration': 5.945}, {'end': 1948.082, 'text': "That's the only consequence that's relevant here.", 'start': 1945.68, 'duration': 2.402}, {'end': 1956.31, 'text': "And there's been a whole other world of reconstructive surgery and all sorts of very interesting, horrifying history.", 'start': 1948.683, 'duration': 7.627}, {'end': 1957.731, 'text': 'OK, so back to this one.', 'start': 1956.61, 'duration': 1.121}, {'end': 1965.474, 'text': "Because of the extremely low testosterone levels, because at a time of life when there's not a whole lot of testosterone around in the fetus,", 'start': 1958.011, 'duration': 7.463}], 'summary': 'Low testosterone levels may impact reproduction in healthy daughter.', 'duration': 26.14, 'max_score': 1939.334, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1939334.jpg'}], 'start': 1570.099, 'title': 'Genetic disorders and gender phenotype', 'summary': 'Delves into the impact of untreated pku on reproductive success, testicular feminization syndrome, and the consequences of androgen receptor mutations, as well as the effects of testosterone deficiency on gender ambiguity, highlighting the critical implications for reproductive health and gender identity.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1802.923, 'start': 1570.099, 'title': 'Genetic disorders and gender phenotype', 'summary': 'Explores the dramatic impact of untreated pku on reproductive success, the surprising case of testicular feminization syndrome leading to a female phenotype in genetically male individuals, and the consequences of androgen receptor mutations on gender phenotype, shedding light on the alarming history of interventions for individuals with testicular feminization syndrome.', 'duration': 232.824, 'highlights': ['Individuals with untreated PKU face a near-zero reproductive success due to rapid destruction of the nervous system after birth.', 'Testicular feminization syndrome results in genetically male individuals developing a female phenotype despite producing high levels of testosterone, due to insensitivity of target cells to androgens.', 'Androgen receptor mutations can lead to a change in gender phenotype, regardless of the levels of testosterone present, highlighting the significant impact of genetic mutations on gender development.']}, {'end': 1957.731, 'start': 1803.243, 'title': 'Testosterone deficiency and gender ambiguity', 'summary': 'Discusses how a mutation in a critical biosynthetic enzyme can lead to extremely low testosterone levels, resulting in individuals being born phenotypically female despite being genetically male, with the only consequence being infertility.', 'duration': 154.488, 'highlights': ['Individuals with a mutation in a critical biosynthetic enzyme have extremely low testosterone levels, leading to phenotypically female appearance despite being genetically male. Due to the mutation, individuals have testosterone levels lower than prepubescent males, resulting in phenotypically female appearance and infertility.', 'The mutation in the biosynthetic enzyme affects the efficacy of testosterone production, leading to gender ambiguity and infertility. The mutation in the biosynthetic enzyme causes a significant decrease in the effectiveness of testosterone production, resulting in gender ambiguity and infertility in affected individuals.', 'Reconstructive surgery and medical ethics play a role in managing the condition, ensuring a healthy life for affected individuals. Physicians provide medical ethics advice and may opt for reconstructive surgery to ensure affected individuals lead healthy lives despite their infertility.']}], 'duration': 387.632, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1570099.jpg', 'highlights': ['Individuals with untreated PKU face near-zero reproductive success due to rapid destruction of the nervous system after birth.', 'Testicular feminization syndrome results in genetically male individuals developing a female phenotype despite producing high levels of testosterone.', 'Androgen receptor mutations can lead to a change in gender phenotype, regardless of the levels of testosterone present.', 'Individuals with a mutation in a critical biosynthetic enzyme have extremely low testosterone levels, leading to phenotypically female appearance despite being genetically male.', 'The mutation in the biosynthetic enzyme affects the efficacy of testosterone production, leading to gender ambiguity and infertility.', 'Reconstructive surgery and medical ethics play a role in managing the condition, ensuring a healthy life for affected individuals.']}, {'end': 2601.952, 'segs': [{'end': 2066.031, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2042.443, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 2051.513, 'text': "What's most interesting is you have this intersection between molecular biology and the bio-endo consequences of this mutation,", 'start': 2042.443, 'duration': 9.07}, {'end': 2053.655, 'text': 'all of that and the cultural context of it.', 'start': 2051.513, 'duration': 2.142}, {'end': 2057.9, 'text': 'Apparently, in both of these populations, people have kind of adapted to it.', 'start': 2053.695, 'duration': 4.205}, {'end': 2059.081, 'text': "It's not a big deal.", 'start': 2058.281, 'duration': 0.8}, {'end': 2063.447, 'text': 'puberty, sometimes you get acne, sometimes you get a penis.', 'start': 2060.623, 'duration': 2.824}, {'end': 2066.031, 'text': 'And people just kind of deal with that.', 'start': 2064.068, 'duration': 1.963}], 'summary': 'Molecular biology intersects with cultural adaptation to mutation, affecting puberty and gender differences.', 'duration': 23.588, 'max_score': 2042.443, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2042443.jpg'}, {'end': 2151.981, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2126.522, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 2134.348, 'text': "There are synthetic versions of benzodiazepines, which people might take when they're feeling anxious, like Valium, like Librium.", 'start': 2126.522, 'duration': 7.826}, {'end': 2137.49, 'text': 'Valium is a synthetic benzodiazepine.', 'start': 2134.668, 'duration': 2.822}, {'end': 2141.113, 'text': 'So benzodiazepines are protein.', 'start': 2138.691, 'duration': 2.422}, {'end': 2142.934, 'text': 'And they have a particular shape.', 'start': 2141.713, 'duration': 1.221}, {'end': 2143.935, 'text': 'And you guessed it.', 'start': 2143.014, 'duration': 0.921}, {'end': 2150.159, 'text': 'There are thus benzodiazepine receptors, which could do that whole lock and key deal going on there.', 'start': 2143.995, 'duration': 6.164}, {'end': 2151.981, 'text': 'And what you have are.', 'start': 2150.78, 'duration': 1.201}], 'summary': 'Synthetic benzodiazepines like valium are used for anxiety, acting on specific receptors.', 'duration': 25.459, 'max_score': 2126.522, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2126522.jpg'}, {'end': 2270.043, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2246.656, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 2253.437, 'text': 'And those high and low anxiety strains differ in the shape of the benzodiazepine receptor in many of these cases.', 'start': 2246.656, 'duration': 6.781}, {'end': 2255.397, 'text': 'Again, tiny little differences.', 'start': 2253.817, 'duration': 1.58}, {'end': 2260.738, 'text': "OK So what we've got here is classical genetics at the molecular level.", 'start': 2255.637, 'duration': 5.101}, {'end': 2270.043, 'text': 'These tiny little changes in one single base pair at a time point deletion, insertion, a world in which it may or may not change the shape,', 'start': 2260.998, 'duration': 9.045}], 'summary': 'High and low anxiety strains show shape differences in benzodiazepine receptor.', 'duration': 23.387, 'max_score': 2246.656, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2246656.jpg'}, {'end': 2455.314, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2427.805, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 2431.447, 'text': 'And all of it changing in a very gradualist, incremental way.', 'start': 2427.805, 'duration': 3.642}, {'end': 2436.747, 'text': 'This has popped up in a number of domains and could be really useful,', 'start': 2432.745, 'duration': 4.002}, {'end': 2443.329, 'text': 'because it allows you for one thing to trace evolutionary history by looking at the changes of single base pairs.', 'start': 2436.747, 'duration': 6.582}, {'end': 2450.852, 'text': "And that's allowed for looking at one really interesting gene, which we may talk about down the line, a gene called FOXP2.", 'start': 2443.669, 'duration': 7.183}, {'end': 2455.314, 'text': 'FOXP2 has something to do with language.', 'start': 2452.193, 'duration': 3.121}], 'summary': 'Gradualist, incremental changes enable tracing evolutionary history, such as with foxp2 gene linked to language.', 'duration': 27.509, 'max_score': 2427.805, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2427805.jpg'}], 'start': 1958.011, 'title': 'Hormonal mutation and neurochemical signaling', 'summary': 'Explores the impact of a testosterone mutation leading to a significant gender transition and discusses neurochemical signaling in anxiety, including benzodiazepines and evolutionary patterns influenced by genetic changes.', 'chapters': [{'end': 2083.931, 'start': 1958.011, 'title': 'Impact of testosterone mutation', 'summary': 'Discusses a case where a single mutation in testosterone levels during puberty results in a significant transition from female to male, showcasing the intersection between molecular biology, bio-endo consequences, and cultural accommodation.', 'duration': 125.92, 'highlights': ['During puberty, a single mutation in testosterone levels can lead to a significant transition from female to male, indicating the intersection between molecular biology, bio-endo consequences, and cultural accommodation.', 'The mutation causes testosterone levels to rise slowly, resulting in a significant change in sex, showcasing the impact of a single mutation on a biological transition.', 'Cultural accommodation to the mutation is observed, as people have adapted to the changes, indicating the intersection between molecular biology, bio-endo consequences, and cultural context.', 'The case demonstrates the profound impact of a single mutation on testosterone levels, resulting in a notable transition from female to male, showcasing the intersection between molecular biology, bio-endo consequences, and cultural adaptation.']}, {'end': 2601.952, 'start': 2084.271, 'title': 'Neurochemical signaling and individual differences in anxiety', 'summary': 'Delves into neurochemical signaling related to anxiety, discussing benzodiazepines, individual differences in anxiety levels, and the impact of single base pair changes on evolutionary patterns.', 'duration': 517.681, 'highlights': ['Benzodiazepines are synthetic versions of neurochemical signaling molecules that decrease anxiety, such as Valium and Librium. Benzodiazepines like Valium and Librium are synthetic versions of neurochemical signaling molecules that decrease anxiety.', "Individual differences in anxiety levels are influenced by variations in the shape of benzodiazepine receptors due to differences in DNA sequences. Variations in DNA sequences specifying benzodiazepine receptors can result in differences in the receptor's shape, impacting anxiety levels.", 'High and low anxiety rat strains differ in the shape of benzodiazepine receptors, indicating a link between genetic variations and behavioral traits. The shape differences in benzodiazepine receptors in high and low anxiety rat strains suggest a connection between genetic variations and behavioral traits.', 'Single base pair changes can impact the functionality of receptors, leading to evolutionary changes and adaptive advantages, supporting gradualism in evolution. Single base pair changes in receptors can drive evolutionary changes and adaptive advantages, aligning with the concept of gradualism in evolution.', 'FOXP2, a gene associated with language and communication, exhibits tiny base pair differences across species, suggesting its significant evolutionary role. FOXP2, a gene linked to language and communication, shows tiny base pair differences across species, implying its substantial evolutionary impact.']}], 'duration': 643.941, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o1958011.jpg', 'highlights': ['A single mutation in testosterone levels during puberty can lead to a significant transition from female to male, showcasing the intersection between molecular biology, bio-endo consequences, and cultural accommodation.', 'Benzodiazepines like Valium and Librium are synthetic versions of neurochemical signaling molecules that decrease anxiety.', "Variations in DNA sequences specifying benzodiazepine receptors can result in differences in the receptor's shape, impacting anxiety levels.", 'The shape differences in benzodiazepine receptors in high and low anxiety rat strains suggest a connection between genetic variations and behavioral traits.', 'Single base pair changes in receptors can drive evolutionary changes and adaptive advantages, aligning with the concept of gradualism in evolution.']}, {'end': 3794.677, 'segs': [{'end': 2707.24, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2680.638, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 2693.649, 'text': 'if you scatter a whole bunch of mutations and you wind up seeing 2 thirds are neutral in terms of their consequence and 1 third actually causes a change in an amino acid,', 'start': 2680.638, 'duration': 13.011}, {'end': 2694.39, 'text': "that's telling you.", 'start': 2693.649, 'duration': 0.741}, {'end': 2703.938, 'text': "it's happening at the random expected rate of mutations popping up that are either consequential changing an amino acid or inconsequential,", 'start': 2694.39, 'duration': 9.548}, {'end': 2707.24, 'text': 'just coding for a different version of the same amino acid.', 'start': 2703.938, 'duration': 3.302}], 'summary': 'About 2/3 mutations are neutral, 1/3 cause amino acid change, occurring at random expected rate.', 'duration': 26.602, 'max_score': 2680.638, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2680638.jpg'}, {'end': 2787.923, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2761.277, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 2767.923, 'text': 'If 99% of them are consequential, there has been some major hard-ass selection going on there.', 'start': 2761.277, 'duration': 6.646}, {'end': 2777.179, 'text': 'Alternatively, if you find a long gene with a whole bunch of mutations and 99% of them are neutral, make no change at all.', 'start': 2769.116, 'duration': 8.063}, {'end': 2778.239, 'text': 'what does that tell you?', 'start': 2777.179, 'duration': 1.06}, {'end': 2780.02, 'text': "This protein's function.", 'start': 2778.539, 'duration': 1.481}, {'end': 2782.421, 'text': 'you do not want to mess with it in the slightest.', 'start': 2780.02, 'duration': 2.401}, {'end': 2787.923, 'text': "Even a minor change in the function of it and you don't pass on copies of your genes.", 'start': 2782.821, 'duration': 5.102}], 'summary': 'Protein function is crucial; 99% consequential mutations show strong selection, while 99% neutral mutations indicate no change needed.', 'duration': 26.646, 'max_score': 2761.277, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2761277.jpg'}, {'end': 2831.238, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2807.277, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 2815.005, 'text': "that differentiated FOXP2 in humans from these other species, it's almost entirely evidences of positive selection.", 'start': 2807.277, 'duration': 7.728}, {'end': 2818.288, 'text': 'This did not just happen by chance.', 'start': 2815.606, 'duration': 2.682}, {'end': 2827.915, 'text': 'Every step of coming up with these new versions, these new amino acids in the sequence there, clearly were ones that were positively selected for.', 'start': 2818.748, 'duration': 9.167}, {'end': 2831.238, 'text': 'A lot of selection brought about this huge difference.', 'start': 2827.935, 'duration': 3.303}], 'summary': 'Human foxp2 shows evidence of positive selection for new amino acids, indicating significant genetic differentiation.', 'duration': 23.961, 'max_score': 2807.277, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2807277.jpg'}, {'end': 2928.153, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2899.607, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 2911.198, 'text': 'Genes specify by way of proteins, and now this is taking a bunch of leaps down there. Traits aspects, genes specified, to be totally simplifying here.', 'start': 2899.607, 'duration': 11.591}, {'end': 2920.146, 'text': 'Genes specify for antlers, for dorsal fins, for petals, and pistils, and stamen, for kidneys.', 'start': 2911.538, 'duration': 8.608}, {'end': 2922.228, 'text': "It's totally simplifying.", 'start': 2920.326, 'duration': 1.902}, {'end': 2928.153, 'text': 'So, right off the bat, you will have some genetic similarities between two different species,', 'start': 2922.788, 'duration': 5.365}], 'summary': 'Genes specify traits like antlers, dorsal fins, petals, stamen, and kidneys, showing genetic similarities between species.', 'duration': 28.546, 'max_score': 2899.607, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2899607.jpg'}, {'end': 3447.323, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3398.791, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 3407.418, 'text': 'And what allowed this to occur is that for some fossils, you have incredibly detailed evolutionary history where you can begin to fill in the lines.', 'start': 3398.791, 'duration': 8.627}, {'end': 3410.581, 'text': 'And they wind up looking punctuated in this way.', 'start': 3407.899, 'duration': 2.682}, {'end': 3417.427, 'text': "So out of him comes this whole theory that it's all about punctuated equilibrium rather than gradualism.", 'start': 3411.302, 'duration': 6.125}, {'end': 3423.755, 'text': "Right off the bat, what are the consequences of that? Little genetic changes don't matter.", 'start': 3418.147, 'duration': 5.608}, {'end': 3431.095, 'text': "Competition driven by the notion of little changes mattering aren't actually occurring.", 'start': 3425.036, 'duration': 6.059}, {'end': 3443.261, 'text': "A model saying most of the time all of the notions of if you figure out the right kid to kidnap when the big guy is coming at you and you'll leave more copies and figuring out exactly who to be infanticidal.", 'start': 3431.575, 'duration': 11.686}, {'end': 3447.323, 'text': "to all that, it's not going to make a difference in terms of gene distribution.", 'start': 3443.261, 'duration': 4.062}], 'summary': "Detailed evolutionary history leads to punctuated equilibrium theory, emphasizing little genetic changes don't matter.", 'duration': 48.532, 'max_score': 3398.791, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o3398791.jpg'}, {'end': 3725.027, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3696.594, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 3698.295, 'text': 'Their time span is completely crazy.', 'start': 3696.594, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 3703.558, 'text': "And they can't study the evolution of anything that's interesting because they study fossils.", 'start': 3698.495, 'duration': 5.063}, {'end': 3711.201, 'text': 'But in lots of ways the best rebuttal, the one that most got at these folks advocating punctuated equilibrium,', 'start': 3704.178, 'duration': 7.023}, {'end': 3715.543, 'text': 'would be the gradualists saying show me a molecular mechanism.', 'start': 3711.201, 'duration': 4.342}, {'end': 3721.746, 'text': 'Show me some way in which you can get rapid change and then long stasis.', 'start': 3716.223, 'duration': 5.523}, {'end': 3725.027, 'text': 'Turn that into modern molecular biology,', 'start': 3722.046, 'duration': 2.981}], 'summary': 'Punctuated equilibrium advocates challenged to show molecular mechanism for rapid change and long stasis in fossils.', 'duration': 28.433, 'max_score': 3696.594, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o3696594.jpg'}], 'start': 2603.033, 'title': 'Genetic selection and chimpanzee similarity', 'summary': 'Covers the impact of genetic mutations on amino acid changes, genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees, and punctuated equilibrium theory, providing insights on selection implications and genetic traits.', 'chapters': [{'end': 2831.238, 'start': 2603.033, 'title': 'Genetic selection and amino acid changes', 'summary': 'Discusses the impact of genetic mutations on amino acid changes, evidences of strong positive selection, and the implications of neutral and stabilizing selection, with emphasis on the rate and consequences of mutations.', 'duration': 228.205, 'highlights': ['The gene FOXP2 in humans experienced a burst of mutations over the last quarter million years, with almost entirely evidences of positive selection, indicating a significant impact of strong selection on the gene. Evidences of positive selection led to a significant impact on the FOXP2 gene over the last quarter million years.', "A gene with 99% neutral mutations suggests stabilizing selection, indicating a strong selection to maintain the gene's function and protein stability. Genes with a high percentage of neutral mutations indicate stabilizing selection to maintain the gene's function and protein stability.", 'Statistically, 2 thirds of the time, a random mutation will not cause a change in an amino acid, highlighting the frequency of neutral mutations. Approximately 66% of random mutations do not result in changes to amino acids, emphasizing the prevalence of neutral mutations.']}, {'end': 3283.499, 'start': 2832.539, 'title': 'Genetic similarity with chimpanzees', 'summary': 'Explains the genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees, clarifying the seemingly contradictory factoids that humans share 50% of dna with siblings and 98% with chimpanzees, while highlighting the role of genes in specifying traits and the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolutionary change.', 'duration': 450.96, 'highlights': ['The concept of genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees is explained, clarifying the seemingly contradictory factoids that humans share 50% of DNA with siblings and 98% with chimpanzees.', 'Genes play a role in specifying traits, and despite the 98% genetic similarity with chimpanzees, the genes code for similar types of traits, such as shared immune systems, while also having differences in genes for specific traits like antlers, trunks, tusks, and wings.', 'The concept of punctuated equilibrium is introduced, challenging gradualistic incremental changes in evolution and proposing long periods of stasis punctuated by periods of very rapid change, aligning with Marxist notions of dialectical materialism.']}, {'end': 3794.677, 'start': 3283.979, 'title': 'Punctuated equilibrium theory', 'summary': 'Discusses the theory of punctuated equilibrium, proposed by paleontologist stephen jay gould, which challenges the traditional gradualist model of evolution by emphasizing long periods of stasis and sporadic rapid changes based on fossil records, leading to a contentious debate between paleontologists and evolutionary biologists.', 'duration': 510.698, 'highlights': ['The theory of punctuated equilibrium challenges the gradualist model of evolution by emphasizing long periods of stasis and sporadic rapid changes based on fossil records, leading to a contentious debate between paleontologists and evolutionary biologists. Challenges gradualist model, emphasizes long stasis and sporadic rapid changes, contentious debate between paleontologists and evolutionary biologists.', 'Stephen Jay Gould, a paleontologist, proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium based on his study of fossil records and evolutionary history, noting gaps and patterns suggesting punctuated equilibrium. Gaps in fossil records, patterns suggesting punctuated equilibrium, proposed by Stephen Jay Gould.', 'The theory of punctuated equilibrium implies that little genetic changes do not lead to significant evolutionary outcomes, challenging sociobiological views and the notion of continuous competition and selective advantages. Little genetic changes not significant, challenges sociobiological views, continuous competition.', 'Critiques of the punctuated equilibrium theory include disagreements on timescales, limitations of studying only fossil morphology, and the demand for molecular mechanisms and genetic evidence to support the theory. Disagreements on timescales, limitations of studying only fossil morphology, demand for molecular mechanisms and genetic evidence.', 'The debate between proponents of punctuated equilibrium and gradualists led to hostility and name-calling, reflecting the intense disagreement and rivalry between the two camps. Hostility and name-calling, intense disagreement and rivalry.']}], 'duration': 1191.644, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o2603033.jpg', 'highlights': ['Evidences of positive selection led to a significant impact on the FOXP2 gene over the last quarter million years.', "Genes with a high percentage of neutral mutations indicate stabilizing selection to maintain the gene's function and protein stability.", 'Approximately 66% of random mutations do not result in changes to amino acids, emphasizing the prevalence of neutral mutations.', 'The genes code for similar types of traits, such as shared immune systems, while also having differences in genes for specific traits like antlers, trunks, tusks, and wings.', 'The concept of punctuated equilibrium challenges the gradualist model of evolution by emphasizing long periods of stasis and sporadic rapid changes based on fossil records, leading to a contentious debate between paleontologists and evolutionary biologists.', 'Gaps in fossil records, patterns suggesting punctuated equilibrium, proposed by Stephen Jay Gould.', 'Little genetic changes not significant, challenges sociobiological views, continuous competition.', 'Disagreements on timescales, limitations of studying only fossil morphology, demand for molecular mechanisms and genetic evidence.']}, {'end': 5045, 'segs': [{'end': 3842.584, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3818.576, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 3826.884, 'text': 'And everything that has occurred since then in the world of molecular genetics that has been most striking has supported punctuated models,', 'start': 3818.576, 'duration': 8.308}, {'end': 3834.893, 'text': "ways in which the micro-mutational micro-evolutionary stuff of an hour ago is not what's going on an awful lot of the time.", 'start': 3826.884, 'duration': 8.009}, {'end': 3837.062, 'text': 'OK, starters.', 'start': 3835.962, 'duration': 1.1}, {'end': 3839.243, 'text': 'So simple classical model.', 'start': 3837.542, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 3842.584, 'text': "What we've got here is a stretch of DNA.", 'start': 3840.023, 'duration': 2.561}], 'summary': 'Molecular genetics supports punctuated models, not micro-evolutionary changes most of the time.', 'duration': 24.008, 'max_score': 3818.576, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o3818576.jpg'}, {'end': 4154.883, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4125.796, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 4129.742, 'text': 'seven different ways of combining these different exons.', 'start': 4125.796, 'duration': 3.946}, {'end': 4134.408, 'text': 'seven different types of proteins you could generate from the same gene.', 'start': 4129.742, 'duration': 4.666}, {'end': 4141.514, 'text': 'This was not accepted with a whole lot of pleasure by the old guard because, intrinsic in the know,', 'start': 4135.47, 'duration': 6.044}, {'end': 4145.857, 'text': 'the DNA sequence specifies amino acid protein shape protein function.', 'start': 4141.514, 'duration': 4.343}, {'end': 4151.341, 'text': 'Intrinsic in that is one gene specifies one protein.', 'start': 4146.157, 'duration': 5.184}, {'end': 4154.883, 'text': 'One gene only specifies a single protein.', 'start': 4152.02, 'duration': 2.863}], 'summary': 'Seven ways of combining exons can produce seven types of proteins, challenging the belief that one gene only specifies a single protein.', 'duration': 29.087, 'max_score': 4125.796, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o4125796.jpg'}, {'end': 4274.432, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4248.584, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 4256.208, 'text': 'So that was a huge, huge breakthrough in the field, understanding this modular basis of gene construction.', 'start': 4248.584, 'duration': 7.624}, {'end': 4263.812, 'text': "And for our purposes right now, what the most interesting consequence of that is is it's no longer one gene, one protein.", 'start': 4256.448, 'duration': 7.364}, {'end': 4269.916, 'text': 'One gene instead can generate all sorts of different types of proteins, different settings, different circumstances.', 'start': 4264.273, 'duration': 5.643}, {'end': 4274.432, 'text': 'The next thing that was intrinsic in this model.', 'start': 4272.15, 'duration': 2.282}], 'summary': 'Breakthrough in gene construction: one gene can generate various proteins in different circumstances.', 'duration': 25.848, 'max_score': 4248.584, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o4248584.jpg'}, {'end': 4584.186, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4558.166, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 4562.388, 'text': 'This would be the switch, and this is the thing that just turned the switch on.', 'start': 4558.166, 'duration': 4.222}, {'end': 4570.692, 'text': 'And these things that turn the switches on, or off in some cases, were soon called transcription factors.', 'start': 4563.308, 'duration': 7.384}, {'end': 4574.442, 'text': 'totally critical concept in there.', 'start': 4572.421, 'duration': 2.021}, {'end': 4578.704, 'text': "The fact that vast stretches of DNA don't code for anything.", 'start': 4574.942, 'duration': 3.762}, {'end': 4581.945, 'text': 'Instead, they have the instruction booklets.', 'start': 4579.124, 'duration': 2.821}, {'end': 4584.186, 'text': "Here's how you turn this gene on or off.", 'start': 4582.025, 'duration': 2.161}], 'summary': 'Transcription factors control gene activation and deactivation, a critical concept in genetics.', 'duration': 26.02, 'max_score': 4558.166, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o4558166.jpg'}, {'end': 4826.627, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4792.01, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 4794.27, 'text': 'The cell is running out of energy.', 'start': 4792.01, 'duration': 2.26}, {'end': 4797.211, 'text': "There's various ways to construct sensors.", 'start': 4794.59, 'duration': 2.621}, {'end': 4804.033, 'text': 'In other words, evolution has come up with a bunch of different ways in which cells can respond to signals of low energy.', 'start': 4797.711, 'duration': 6.322}, {'end': 4815.86, 'text': 'And that will activate some transcription factor which will go and bind to a bunch of promoters which produce proteins involved in taking up more energy from outside the cell,', 'start': 4804.593, 'duration': 11.267}, {'end': 4818.622, 'text': 'transporting in more, using energy more efficiently.', 'start': 4815.86, 'duration': 2.762}, {'end': 4826.627, 'text': 'So what we have here is an environmental regulation of genetic effects, environment, the rest of the environment of the cell.', 'start': 4818.962, 'duration': 7.665}], 'summary': 'Cells respond to low energy signals by activating transcription factors that regulate energy intake and usage.', 'duration': 34.617, 'max_score': 4792.01, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o4792010.jpg'}], 'start': 3794.677, 'title': 'Genetic evolution and expression', 'summary': 'Explores punctuated evolution in molecular genetics, dna structure, modular gene construction breakthrough, regulatory sequences, and environmental regulation, highlighting rapid evolutionary changes and the modular construction of genes.', 'chapters': [{'end': 3842.584, 'start': 3794.677, 'title': 'Punctuated evolution in molecular genetics', 'summary': 'Discusses the controversy surrounding punctuated equilibrium in the 80s and how subsequent molecular genetics findings have supported rapid evolutionary changes, indicating that micro-mutational micro-evolutionary processes do not account for most genetic changes.', 'duration': 47.907, 'highlights': ['The controversy surrounding punctuated equilibrium in the 80s and the subsequent support from molecular genetics findings for rapid evolutionary changes.', 'The demand for molecular mechanisms and mutation processes that produce rapid change in the evolutionary process.', 'The support from molecular genetics findings for punctuated models, indicating that micro-mutational processes do not account for most genetic changes.']}, {'end': 4052.92, 'start': 3843.564, 'title': 'Dna structure and gene coding', 'summary': 'Discusses the structure of dna, the discovery of exons and introns, and the role of splicing enzymes in gene coding, highlighting the modular construction of genes and the potential for a lot of information.', 'duration': 209.356, 'highlights': ['Genes are not necessarily coded for in one continuous stretch of DNA, but instead are broken up into separate exons and introns. The discovery that genes are not always coded for in one continuous stretch of DNA, but are broken up into separate exons and introns, was a major finding that led to the understanding of the modular construction of genes.', 'Splicing enzymes play a crucial role in gene coding by clipping out the introns and sticking together the exons to create functional genes. Enzymes called splicing enzymes were discovered to clip out the introns and stick together the exons at the RNA level, allowing for the creation of functional genes from the separate coding domains.', 'David Baltimore was the first to appreciate the potential for a lot of information due to the modular construction of genes. David Baltimore, a Nobel Prize recipient, was the first to recognize the potential for a lot of information due to the modular construction of genes, introducing the concept of genes coming in separate exons.']}, {'end': 4381.178, 'start': 4054.001, 'title': 'Modular gene construction breakthrough', 'summary': 'Discusses the groundbreaking understanding of modular gene construction, leading to the realization that one gene can generate multiple types of proteins, with 95% of dna being non-coding, challenging the previous notion of one gene, one protein.', 'duration': 327.177, 'highlights': ['Understanding modular gene construction and its combinatorial possibilities The discovery that one gene can generate seven different types of proteins by combining different exons, challenging the notion of one gene, one protein.', 'Tissue-specific gene expression through splicing enzymes The revelation that splicing enzymes working differently in different parts of the body enable tissue-specific expression of genes, leading to the production of different types of proteins in diverse settings.', 'Realization of 95% non-coding DNA and its potential significance The surprising revelation that 95% of DNA is non-coding, challenging the previous assumption of junk DNA and indicating that it must be serving a purpose.']}, {'end': 4740.824, 'start': 4381.758, 'title': 'Regulatory sequences and gene expression', 'summary': 'Discusses how the non-coding dna serves as the instruction booklet for turning genes on or off through regulatory sequences and transcription factors, leading to the activation of genetic networks.', 'duration': 359.066, 'highlights': ['Non-coding DNA serves as the instruction booklet for activating genes through regulatory sequences and transcription factors The non-coding DNA contains the instruction booklet for activating genes through regulatory sequences and transcription factors, challenging the traditional view of DNA as the central dogma of life.', 'Regulatory sequences and transcription factors enable the activation of entire networks of gene expression Regulatory sequences and transcription factors allow for the activation of entire networks of gene expression, leading to the production of arrays of proteins with functional similarities.', 'Different promoters upstream of genes enable gene activation under various circumstances The presence of different promoters upstream of genes allows for gene activation under different circumstances, providing flexibility in gene expression regulation.']}, {'end': 5045, 'start': 4741.724, 'title': 'Environmental regulation of genetic effects', 'summary': "Explains how the environment interacts with genetic elements, influencing gene expression and protein production in cells, with examples of cell's response to low energy signals, hormone regulation, and sensory information.", 'duration': 303.276, 'highlights': ['Cells respond to signals of low energy by activating transcription factors, which regulate gene expression and protein production, contributing to efficient energy usage. The cells respond to signals of low energy by activating some transcription factor which will go and bind to a bunch of promoters which produce proteins involved in taking up more energy from outside the cell, transporting in more, and using energy more efficiently.', 'Hormones, as blood-borne chemical messengers, regulate gene expression and protein production in cells throughout the body by binding to their receptors and activating transcription factors. Hormones, as blood-borne chemical messengers, affect cells throughout the body by binding to their receptors and triggering a cascade of events that regulate the gene expression and protein production in the cells.', 'Sensory information from the outside world, such as odors or pheromones, can also influence gene expression and protein production in cells, leading to physiological responses. Sensory information from the outside world, such as odors or pheromones, can influence gene expression and protein production in cells, leading to physiological responses like changes in structural proteins or hormone production.']}], 'duration': 1250.323, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o3794677.jpg', 'highlights': ['Molecular genetics findings support punctuated models for rapid evolutionary changes.', 'Genes are broken up into separate exons and introns, leading to the understanding of modular gene construction.', 'One gene can generate seven different types of proteins by combining different exons, challenging the notion of one gene, one protein.', 'Non-coding DNA contains the instruction booklet for activating genes through regulatory sequences and transcription factors.', 'Cells respond to signals of low energy by activating transcription factors, contributing to efficient energy usage.']}, {'end': 5612.657, 'segs': [{'end': 5097.058, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5073.695, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 5082.37, 'text': 'First, the modular ability for one gene to generate all sorts of different proteins, which brings up an issue after a while.', 'start': 5073.695, 'duration': 8.675}, {'end': 5085.272, 'text': 'Does that count as one gene? And people argue over that.', 'start': 5082.49, 'duration': 2.782}, {'end': 5097.058, 'text': 'And because of this 95% regulatory sequence business, the most interesting stuff going on with DNA is not what the protein is like.', 'start': 5086.092, 'duration': 10.966}], 'summary': 'Modular gene can generate diverse proteins. 95% of dna involved in regulation.', 'duration': 23.363, 'max_score': 5073.695, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5073695.jpg'}, {'end': 5334.557, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5311.521, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 5322.227, 'text': 'the environment can do things where you change the structure of chromatin around a particular gene in a way that makes it easier to transcribe or harder to transcribe.', 'start': 5311.521, 'duration': 10.706}, {'end': 5325.43, 'text': 'And you can essentially make that change permanent.', 'start': 5322.587, 'duration': 2.843}, {'end': 5334.557, 'text': 'You could permanently do something in some particular stretch of chromatin so it will never open up again to allow the transcription factor in.', 'start': 5326.01, 'duration': 8.547}], 'summary': 'Environmental factors can permanently alter gene transcription by modifying chromatin structure.', 'duration': 23.036, 'max_score': 5311.521, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5311521.jpg'}, {'end': 5408.05, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5382.712, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 5394.1, 'text': 'In rats, the mothering style of the mother rat will cause chromatin changes, permanent ones in some of the genes related to stress hormones.', 'start': 5382.712, 'duration': 11.388}, {'end': 5405.589, 'text': 'So that certain types of mothering how often you lick the baby and other rat mother type stuff will regulate how readily some genes will be turned on for the rest of your life.', 'start': 5394.521, 'duration': 11.068}, {'end': 5408.05, 'text': 'This is early experience.', 'start': 5406.269, 'duration': 1.781}], 'summary': 'Mothering style in rats causes permanent chromatin changes in stress hormone-related genes, affecting gene activation for life.', 'duration': 25.338, 'max_score': 5382.712, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5382712.jpg'}, {'end': 5513.088, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5481.305, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 5486.509, 'text': 'And this has given rise to a great phrase, fertilization is all about genetics.', 'start': 5481.305, 'duration': 5.204}, {'end': 5490.351, 'text': 'Development is all about epigenetics.', 'start': 5487.629, 'duration': 2.722}, {'end': 5498.92, 'text': "And what epigenetics is about are ways in which the environment not only can regulate what's going on with this gene right now,", 'start': 5490.95, 'duration': 7.97}, {'end': 5503.426, 'text': 'but can cause lifelong differences in the ability to access genes.', 'start': 5498.92, 'duration': 4.506}, {'end': 5513.088, 'text': 'So this is an enormous array of levels of regulation splicing enzymes, determining how your exons get mixed and matched,', 'start': 5505.083, 'duration': 8.005}], 'summary': 'Fertilization is genetics, development is epigenetics, and environment can cause lifelong differences in gene access.', 'duration': 31.783, 'max_score': 5481.305, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5481305.jpg'}, {'end': 5568.409, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5524.895, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 5528.958, 'text': "Transcription factors reflecting what's going on in the outside world.", 'start': 5524.895, 'duration': 4.063}, {'end': 5532.041, 'text': 'like in the rest of the cell to the other side of the planet.', 'start': 5529.278, 'duration': 2.763}, {'end': 5540.489, 'text': 'And finally, this whole additional level of regulation where some of the regulatory consequences here can be lifelong.', 'start': 5532.401, 'duration': 8.088}, {'end': 5550.86, 'text': 'Enormous array of levels of regulation and an enormous number of ways in which just the DNA sequence of the gene itself is not very interesting.', 'start': 5540.99, 'duration': 9.87}, {'end': 5554.061, 'text': 'That determines the shape of the protein.', 'start': 5551.4, 'duration': 2.661}, {'end': 5567.468, 'text': 'All this other stuff is where is it expressed? When is it expressed? In what contexts? What sort of if-then contingencies? Whether it is ever expressed after a certain childhood event? All of that much,', 'start': 5554.222, 'duration': 13.246}, {'end': 5568.409, 'text': 'much more interesting.', 'start': 5567.468, 'duration': 0.941}], 'summary': 'Transcription factors reflect external stimuli, regulating gene expression in diverse ways.', 'duration': 43.514, 'max_score': 5524.895, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5524895.jpg'}], 'start': 5045.34, 'title': 'Gene expression regulation', 'summary': "Covers gene expression regulation, including external factors' influence, modular gene ability, and context significance. also, it discusses transcription factors, chromatin modeling, and environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression, emphasizing their significance in evolution and mutations.", 'chapters': [{'end': 5147.035, 'start': 5045.34, 'title': 'Regulation of gene expression', 'summary': 'Discusses the regulation of gene expression, highlighting the influence of external factors on gene activation, the modular ability of genes to generate different proteins, and the significance of context in gene expression, with a focus on if-then clauses.', 'duration': 101.695, 'highlights': ['Genes are regulated by external factors from the outside world, impacting when genes activate.', 'Genes have the modular ability to generate various proteins, leading to debates on whether it counts as one gene.', 'Context plays a significant role in gene expression, with if-then clauses introducing conditional triggers for protein production.']}, {'end': 5612.657, 'start': 5148.208, 'title': 'Regulation and epigenetics in molecular biology', 'summary': 'Discusses the complex regulatory mechanisms involving transcription factors, chromatin modeling, and epigenetics, with examples of environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression and access, emphasizing the significance of these processes in evolution and mutations.', 'duration': 464.449, 'highlights': ['The role of transcription factors and chromatin modeling in regulating gene expression and access, with environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression and access.', 'Examples of environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression and access, such as the mothering style of rats leading to permanent chromatin changes in stress hormone-related genes.', 'The significance of epigenetics in overriding genetic influences and causing lifelong differences in the ability to access genes, with the environment playing a crucial role in regulating gene expression and access.']}], 'duration': 567.317, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/_dRXA1_e30o/pics/_dRXA1_e30o5045340.jpg', 'highlights': ['Context plays a significant role in gene expression, with if-then clauses introducing conditional triggers for protein production.', 'Genes have the modular ability to generate various proteins, leading to debates on whether it counts as one gene.', 'Genes are regulated by external factors from the outside world, impacting when genes activate.', 'The role of transcription factors and chromatin modeling in regulating gene expression and access, with environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression and access.', 'The significance of epigenetics in overriding genetic influences and causing lifelong differences in the ability to access genes, with the environment playing a crucial role in regulating gene expression and access.', 'Examples of environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression and access, such as the mothering style of rats leading to permanent chromatin changes in stress hormone-related genes.']}], 'highlights': ['The chapter critiques the emphasis on small incremental changes in evolutionary behavior, highlighting the critique of gradualism.', 'The shift towards a molecular stance in behavioral science is highlighted, with contempt towards previous approaches that lacked molecular evidence and were considered less scientific.', 'The chapter focuses on criticizing the notions of heritability, adaptation, and gradualism in the evolution of behavior.', 'Individuals with untreated PKU face near-zero reproductive success due to rapid destruction of the nervous system after birth.', 'Testicular feminization syndrome results in genetically male individuals developing a female phenotype despite producing high levels of testosterone.', 'A single mutation in testosterone levels during puberty can lead to a significant transition from female to male, showcasing the intersection between molecular biology, bio-endo consequences, and cultural accommodation.', 'Evidences of positive selection led to a significant impact on the FOXP2 gene over the last quarter million years.', "Genes with a high percentage of neutral mutations indicate stabilizing selection to maintain the gene's function and protein stability.", 'Molecular genetics findings support punctuated models for rapid evolutionary changes.', 'Non-coding DNA contains the instruction booklet for activating genes through regulatory sequences and transcription factors.', 'The role of transcription factors and chromatin modeling in regulating gene expression and access, with environmental influences causing lifelong changes in gene expression and access.']}