title
Dmitry Korkin: Evolution of Proteins, Viruses, Life, and AI | Lex Fridman Podcast #153

description
Dmitry Korkin is a professor of bioinformatics and computational biology at WPI. Please support this podcast by checking out our sponsors: - Brave: https://brave.com/lex - NetSuite: http://netsuite.com/lex to get free product tour - Magic Spoon: https://magicspoon.com/lex and use code LEX to get $5 off - Eight Sleep: https://www.eightsleep.com/lex and use code LEX to get special savings EPISODE LINKS: Dmitry's Website: http://korkinlab.org/ Dmitry's Twitter: https://twitter.com/dmkorkin PODCAST INFO: Podcast website: https://lexfridman.com/podcast Apple Podcasts: https://apple.co/2lwqZIr Spotify: https://spoti.fi/2nEwCF8 RSS: https://lexfridman.com/feed/podcast/ Full episodes playlist: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLrAXtmErZgOdP_8GztsuKi9nrraNbKKp4 Clips playlist: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLrAXtmErZgOeciFP3CBCIEElOJeitOr41 OUTLINE: 0:00 - Introduction 1:57 - Proteins and the building blocks of life 9:00 - Spike protein 15:48 - Coronavirus biological structure explained 20:45 - Virus mutations 27:16 - Evolution of proteins 37:02 - Self-replicating computer programs 44:38 - Origin of life 52:11 - Extraterrestrial life in our solar system 54:08 - Joshua Lederberg 1:00:07 - Dendral 1:03:01 - Why did expert systems fail? 1:05:12 - AlphaFold 2 1:26:50 - Will AI revolutionize art and music? 1:33:49 - Multi-protein folding 1:38:16 - Will AlphaFold 2 result in a Nobel Prize? 1:40:47 - Will AI be used to engineer deadly viruses? 1:55:54 - Book recommendations 2:05:37 - Family 2:08:15 - A poem in Russian CONNECT: - Subscribe to this YouTube channel - Twitter: https://twitter.com/lexfridman - LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/lexfridman - Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/LexFridmanPage - Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/lexfridman - Medium: https://medium.com/@lexfridman - Support on Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/lexfridman

detail
{'title': 'Dmitry Korkin: Evolution of Proteins, Viruses, Life, and AI | Lex Fridman Podcast #153', 'heatmap': [{'end': 6454.092, 'start': 6359.75, 'weight': 1}], 'summary': "Dmitry korkin discusses virus research, protein modular complexity, evolutionary stability of covid-19, self-replicating programs, probability of alien life, alphafold 2's impact, protein folding complexity, machine learning in science, and ai's influence on art.", 'chapters': [{'end': 112.619, 'segs': [{'end': 71.842, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 0.049, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 4.39, 'text': 'The following is a conversation with Dmitry Korkin, his second time on the podcast.', 'start': 0.049, 'duration': 4.341}, {'end': 13.633, 'text': "He's a professor of bioinformatics and computational biology at WPI, where he specializes in bioinformatics of complex disease,", 'start': 4.931, 'duration': 8.702}, {'end': 18.035, 'text': 'computational genomics, systems biology and biomedical data analytics.', 'start': 13.633, 'duration': 4.402}, {'end': 20.096, 'text': 'He loves biology.', 'start': 18.655, 'duration': 1.441}, {'end': 21.657, 'text': 'He loves computing.', 'start': 20.656, 'duration': 1.001}, {'end': 27.32, 'text': 'Plus, he is Russian and recites a poem in Russian at the end of the podcast.', 'start': 22.117, 'duration': 5.203}, {'end': 32.543, 'text': 'What else could you possibly ask for in this world? Quick mention of our sponsors.', 'start': 27.841, 'duration': 4.702}, {'end': 33.845, 'text': 'Brave Browser.', 'start': 33.064, 'duration': 0.781}, {'end': 42.424, 'text': 'NetSuite business management software, Magic Spoon low-carb cereal, and Eight Sleep self-cooling mattress.', 'start': 34.838, 'duration': 7.586}, {'end': 48.528, 'text': 'So the choice is browsing privacy, business success, healthy diet, or comfortable sleep.', 'start': 42.964, 'duration': 5.564}, {'end': 50.33, 'text': 'Choose wisely, my friends.', 'start': 49.269, 'duration': 1.061}, {'end': 55.694, 'text': 'And if you wish, click the sponsor links below to get a discount and to support this podcast.', 'start': 50.73, 'duration': 4.964}, {'end': 62.358, 'text': 'As a side note, let me say that, to me, the scientists that did the best apolitical, impactful,', 'start': 56.496, 'duration': 5.862}, {'end': 71.842, 'text': 'brilliant work of 2020 are the biologists who study viruses without an agenda, without much sleep, to be honest,', 'start': 62.358, 'duration': 9.484}], 'summary': 'Dmitry korkin, a bioinformatics professor, discusses his expertise and interests in biology and computing on the podcast, along with sponsor mentions for brave browser, netsuite, magic spoon, and eight sleep.', 'duration': 71.793, 'max_score': 0.049, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o49.jpg'}], 'start': 0.049, 'title': "Dmitry korkin's passion for viruses", 'summary': "Delves into dmitry korkin's expertise in bioinformatics and his appreciation for virus research, alongside a quick mention of podcast sponsors.", 'chapters': [{'end': 112.619, 'start': 0.049, 'title': "Biologist's passion for viruses", 'summary': "Discusses dmitry korkin's passion for biology and computing, his expertise in bioinformatics, and his appreciation for the work of scientists studying viruses, along with a quick mention of the podcast sponsors.", 'duration': 112.57, 'highlights': ["Dmitry Korkin is a professor of bioinformatics and computational biology at WPI, specializing in bioinformatics of complex disease, computational genomics, systems biology, and biomedical data analytics. Dmitry Korkin's expertise in bioinformatics and computational biology is highlighted, showcasing his extensive knowledge and research focus.", 'Biologists studying viruses are acknowledged for their impactful work in 2020, characterized by their apolitical and brilliant dedication to scientific discovery and exploration. The significant contributions of biologists studying viruses in 2020 are emphasized, emphasizing their apolitical and brilliant dedication to scientific discovery.', 'The podcast briefly mentions its sponsors: Brave Browser, NetSuite business management software, Magic Spoon low-carb cereal, and Eight Sleep self-cooling mattress, offering discounts to the audience. The podcast briefly mentions its sponsors and their products, encouraging the audience to choose wisely and offering discounts through sponsor links.']}], 'duration': 112.57, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o49.jpg', 'highlights': ['Dmitry Korkin specializes in bioinformatics of complex disease, computational genomics, systems biology, and biomedical data analytics.', 'Biologists studying viruses made significant contributions in 2020, characterized by their apolitical and brilliant dedication to scientific discovery.', 'The podcast briefly mentions its sponsors: Brave Browser, NetSuite business management software, Magic Spoon low-carb cereal, and Eight Sleep self-cooling mattress, offering discounts to the audience.']}, {'end': 1195.869, 'segs': [{'end': 176.564, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 142.938, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 151.482, 'text': 'However, through studying the proteins And comparing the proteins across different species, across different kingdoms,', 'start': 142.938, 'duration': 8.544}, {'end': 155.746, 'text': 'you realize that proteins are actually much more complicated.', 'start': 151.482, 'duration': 4.264}, {'end': 161.352, 'text': 'So they have so-called modular complexity.', 'start': 156.867, 'duration': 4.485}, {'end': 173.722, 'text': 'And so what I mean by that is an average protein consists of several structural units.', 'start': 162.533, 'duration': 11.189}, {'end': 176.564, 'text': 'So we call them protein domains.', 'start': 174.783, 'duration': 1.781}], 'summary': 'Proteins show modular complexity with multiple structural units called protein domains.', 'duration': 33.626, 'max_score': 142.938, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o142938.jpg'}, {'end': 388.859, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 349.848, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 357.295, 'text': 'So the traditional ones are X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy.', 'start': 349.848, 'duration': 7.447}, {'end': 364.401, 'text': 'So these are sort of the two main techniques that give us the 3D coordinates.', 'start': 357.335, 'duration': 7.066}, {'end': 369.987, 'text': 'But nowadays, there is a huge breakthrough in cryo-electron microscopy.', 'start': 364.461, 'duration': 5.526}, {'end': 383.475, 'text': 'So the more advanced methods that allow us to get into the 3D shapes of much larger molecules molecular complexes,', 'start': 370.547, 'duration': 12.928}, {'end': 388.859, 'text': 'just to give you one of the common examples for this year.', 'start': 383.475, 'duration': 5.384}], 'summary': 'X-ray crystallography and nmr spectroscopy are traditional methods, but cryo-electron microscopy is a breakthrough allowing 3d shapes of larger molecules.', 'duration': 39.011, 'max_score': 349.848, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o349848.jpg'}, {'end': 705.269, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 668.276, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 679.92, 'text': 'And this is where another level of complexity comes into play, because right now what we see is we typically see just one of the arms.', 'start': 668.276, 'duration': 11.644}, {'end': 687.528, 'text': 'going out and getting ready to be attached to the ACE2 receptors.', 'start': 680.58, 'duration': 6.948}, {'end': 703.588, 'text': 'However, there was a recent mutation that people studied in that spike protein and, Very recently, a group from UMass Medical School.', 'start': 687.588, 'duration': 16}, {'end': 705.269, 'text': 'we happened to collaborate with groups.', 'start': 703.588, 'duration': 1.681}], 'summary': 'Recent mutation in spike protein studied by umass medical school.', 'duration': 36.993, 'max_score': 668.276, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o668276.jpg'}, {'end': 771.245, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 741.204, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 750.711, 'text': 'It potentially can change the dynamics because now you have two possible opportunities to get attached to the ACE2 receptor.', 'start': 741.204, 'duration': 9.507}, {'end': 754.953, 'text': "It's a very complex molecular process, mechanistic process.", 'start': 751.131, 'duration': 3.822}, {'end': 766.621, 'text': 'But the first step of this process is the attachment of this spike protein, of the spike trimer, to the human ACE2 receptor.', 'start': 755.374, 'duration': 11.247}, {'end': 771.245, 'text': 'So this is a molecule that sits on the surface of the human cell.', 'start': 766.641, 'duration': 4.604}], 'summary': 'Covid-19 spike protein attaches to human ace2 receptor, potentially altering dynamics.', 'duration': 30.041, 'max_score': 741.204, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o741204.jpg'}, {'end': 852.824, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 819.005, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 827.072, 'text': "It's a very low res, but you still get some interesting details about the surface, about what is happening inside,", 'start': 819.005, 'duration': 8.067}, {'end': 834.179, 'text': 'because we have literally no clue until recent work about how the capsid is organized.', 'start': 827.072, 'duration': 7.107}, {'end': 848.343, 'text': "So capsid is essentially the inner core of the viral particle, where there is the RNA of the virus, and it's protected by another protein,", 'start': 835.199, 'duration': 13.144}, {'end': 852.824, 'text': 'N protein that essentially acts as a shield.', 'start': 848.343, 'duration': 4.481}], 'summary': 'Recent work reveals details of viral capsid organization and protection by n protein.', 'duration': 33.819, 'max_score': 819.005, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o819005.jpg'}, {'end': 1195.869, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1169.783, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 1180.726, 'text': "so One of the promising directions it's one of the newest directions is actually targeting the M-dimer of the protein,", 'start': 1169.783, 'duration': 10.943}, {'end': 1183.987, 'text': 'targeting the proteins that make up this outer shell.', 'start': 1180.726, 'duration': 3.261}, {'end': 1191.628, 'text': "Because if you're able to destroy the outer shell, you're essentially destroying the viral particle itself.", 'start': 1184.267, 'duration': 7.361}, {'end': 1195.869, 'text': 'So preventing it from functioning at all.', 'start': 1192.368, 'duration': 3.501}], 'summary': 'Targeting m-dimer of the protein can destroy the viral particle, preventing its function.', 'duration': 26.086, 'max_score': 1169.783, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1169783.jpg'}], 'start': 113.259, 'title': 'Protein structure and viral dynamics', 'summary': 'Explores protein modular complexity, evolution, and cryo-electron microscopy breakthrough. it also delves into spike protein dynamics, mutations, and their impact on ace2 receptor attachment. additionally, it discusses virus structure and treatment implications, highlighting vaccine development and targeting the m-protein for disrupting the viral particle.', 'chapters': [{'end': 532.684, 'start': 113.259, 'title': 'Proteins as modular building blocks', 'summary': 'Discusses how proteins consist of modular complexity, with protein domains as the basic building blocks, and examines the evolution and structural perspective of protein domains, highlighted by the recent breakthrough in cryo-electron microscopy.', 'duration': 419.425, 'highlights': ['Proteins consist of modular complexity with protein domains as the basic building blocks, allowing for multiple functions and shuffling during evolution. Proteins are much more complicated than just basic building blocks, as they consist of several structural units called protein domains, allowing for multiple functions and shuffling during evolution.', 'Recent breakthrough in cryo-electron microscopy has allowed for the 3D shapes of much larger molecular complexes to be obtained. Advancements in cryo-electron microscopy have allowed for obtaining the 3D shapes of much larger molecular complexes, such as the experimental structure of a SARS-CoV-2 protein.', 'Discussion of the complex structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein as a trimer and the concept of protein complexes. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is a complex trimer, and the concept of protein complexes is explained as an agglomeration of multiple proteins, forming homo oligomers or hetero complexes.']}, {'end': 818.885, 'start': 535.206, 'title': 'Spike protein dynamics and mutations', 'summary': 'Delves into the complex dynamics of the spike protein, highlighting its structural challenges, the impact of mutations on attachment to the ace2 receptor, and the potential increase in attachment opportunities due to mutations.', 'duration': 283.679, 'highlights': ['The Cryo-EM data allows reconstruction of 3D coordinates of roughly two-thirds of the spike protein, posing a challenge due to the remaining buried portion and unstable structures. Cryo-EM data provides 3D coordinates for two-thirds of the spike protein, making the study challenging due to the buried portion and unstable structures, hindering complete understanding.', 'Mutation in the spike protein results in a drastic increase in the frequency of two arms attaching to the ACE2 receptor, potentially altering the dynamics of the attachment process. Mutations in the spike protein lead to a significant increase in the frequency of two arms attaching to the ACE2 receptor, potentially altering the dynamics of the attachment process.', "The spike protein's primary function is to attach to the human ACE2 receptor, initiating the process of encapsulation, with recent mutations allowing for more attachment opportunities. The spike protein's main role is to attach to the human ACE2 receptor, initiating encapsulation, with recent mutations providing more opportunities for attachment."]}, {'end': 1195.869, 'start': 819.005, 'title': 'Virus structure and treatment implications', 'summary': 'Discusses the structure of the virus, including the capsid and envelope proteins, and their implications for vaccine development and treatment design, highlighting the potential of targeting the m-protein for disrupting the viral particle.', 'duration': 376.864, 'highlights': ['Understanding the structure of the virus, including the capsid and envelope proteins, is crucial for vaccine development and treatment design. N/A', "The N protein acts as a shield protecting the RNA of the virus inside the capsid, and it may also contribute to the stability of the virus's outer shell. N/A", 'Designing nanoparticles to resemble the viral shape and block ACE2 receptors shows potential as a treatment strategy. N/A', 'Targeting the M-dimer of the protein is a promising direction for disrupting the viral particle, potentially leading to the destruction of the virus. N/A']}], 'duration': 1082.61, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o113259.jpg', 'highlights': ['Recent breakthrough in cryo-electron microscopy has allowed for the 3D shapes of much larger molecular complexes to be obtained.', 'Proteins consist of modular complexity with protein domains as the basic building blocks, allowing for multiple functions and shuffling during evolution.', 'Mutation in the spike protein results in a drastic increase in the frequency of two arms attaching to the ACE2 receptor, potentially altering the dynamics of the attachment process.', "The spike protein's primary function is to attach to the human ACE2 receptor, initiating the process of encapsulation, with recent mutations allowing for more attachment opportunities.", 'Understanding the structure of the virus, including the capsid and envelope proteins, is crucial for vaccine development and treatment design.', 'Targeting the M-dimer of the protein is a promising direction for disrupting the viral particle, potentially leading to the destruction of the virus.']}, {'end': 2177.488, 'segs': [{'end': 1250.814, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1219.878, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1231.508, 'text': 'But from our analysis, from other evolutionary analysis, this protein is evolutionary more stable compared to the spike protein.', 'start': 1219.878, 'duration': 11.63}, {'end': 1236.232, 'text': 'Stable means a more static target? Well, yeah.', 'start': 1231.568, 'duration': 4.664}, {'end': 1238.194, 'text': "So it doesn't change.", 'start': 1236.252, 'duration': 1.942}, {'end': 1245.46, 'text': "It doesn't evolve from the evolutionary perspective so drastically as, for example, the spike protein.", 'start': 1238.454, 'duration': 7.006}, {'end': 1250.814, 'text': "There's a bunch of stuff in the news about mutations of the virus in the United Kingdom.", 'start': 1246.052, 'duration': 4.762}], 'summary': 'The protein is more stable and less prone to evolution compared to the spike protein, as indicated by evolutionary analysis.', 'duration': 30.936, 'max_score': 1219.878, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1219878.jpg'}, {'end': 1306.178, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1275.387, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 1278.448, 'text': 'Are you worried about it from a biological perspective??', 'start': 1275.387, 'duration': 3.061}, {'end': 1280.589, 'text': 'Are you worried about it from a human perspective?', 'start': 1278.528, 'duration': 2.061}, {'end': 1288.732, 'text': 'So I mean you know mutations are sort of a general way for these viruses to evolve right?', 'start': 1281.369, 'duration': 7.363}, {'end': 1292.754, 'text': "So it's you know, it's essentially.", 'start': 1288.992, 'duration': 3.762}, {'end': 1294.674, 'text': 'this is the way they evolve.', 'start': 1292.754, 'duration': 1.92}, {'end': 1301.277, 'text': 'This is the way they were able to jump from, you know, one species to another.', 'start': 1294.814, 'duration': 6.463}, {'end': 1306.178, 'text': 'We also see some recent jumps.', 'start': 1302.157, 'duration': 4.021}], 'summary': 'Viruses evolve through mutations, facilitating jumps between species.', 'duration': 30.791, 'max_score': 1275.387, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1275387.jpg'}, {'end': 1487.205, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1459.925, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 1468.252, 'text': 'uh so, but one of the critical directions in understanding the virus is to to understand its evolution in order to, uh,', 'start': 1459.925, 'duration': 8.327}, {'end': 1473.696, 'text': 'sort of understand the mechanisms, the key mechanisms that lead the virus to jump.', 'start': 1468.252, 'duration': 5.444}, {'end': 1485.264, 'text': 'you know the Nordic viruses to jump from species to another, that the mechanisms that lead the virus to become resistant to vaccines,', 'start': 1473.696, 'duration': 11.568}, {'end': 1487.205, 'text': 'also to treatments, right?', 'start': 1485.264, 'duration': 1.941}], 'summary': 'Understanding virus evolution is critical to addressing its ability to jump between species and develop resistance to vaccines and treatments.', 'duration': 27.28, 'max_score': 1459.925, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1459925.jpg'}, {'end': 1596.301, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1565.679, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 1569.362, 'text': 'And many of these functions are sort of nearly perfect, but they are not perfect.', 'start': 1565.679, 'duration': 3.683}, {'end': 1574.086, 'text': 'And those mutations can make those functions more perfect.', 'start': 1570.062, 'duration': 4.024}, {'end': 1579.39, 'text': 'For example, the attachment to ACE2 receptor right of the spike right?', 'start': 1574.126, 'duration': 5.264}, {'end': 1590.876, 'text': 'So you know, is it, has this virus reached the efficiency in which the attachment is carried out?', 'start': 1579.47, 'duration': 11.406}, {'end': 1596.301, 'text': 'Or there are some mutations that still to be discovered, right?', 'start': 1591.737, 'duration': 4.564}], 'summary': 'Mutations can improve functions, like attachment to ace2 receptor, making virus more efficient.', 'duration': 30.622, 'max_score': 1565.679, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1565679.jpg'}, {'end': 1680.92, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1654.425, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 1664.251, 'text': 'And then it kind of implies and talks about that proteins started with a common ancestor, which is kind of interesting.', 'start': 1654.425, 'duration': 9.826}, {'end': 1671.236, 'text': "It's interesting to think about even just the first organic thing that started life on Earth.", 'start': 1664.692, 'duration': 6.544}, {'end': 1680.92, 'text': "And from that, there's now, you know, what is it? 3.5 billion years later, there's now millions of proteins and they're still evolving.", 'start': 1672.016, 'duration': 8.904}], 'summary': 'Proteins, evolving over 3.5 billion years, started with a common ancestor.', 'duration': 26.495, 'max_score': 1654.425, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1654425.jpg'}, {'end': 1767.829, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1740.305, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 1749.753, 'text': 'And so, again, these protein domains, they are not only functional building blocks, they are also evolutionary building blocks.', 'start': 1740.305, 'duration': 9.448}, {'end': 1761.623, 'text': 'And so what we see in the later stages of evolution, I mean once this stable structurally and functionally building blocks were discovered,', 'start': 1750.214, 'duration': 11.409}, {'end': 1765.707, 'text': 'they essentially they stay.', 'start': 1762.324, 'duration': 3.383}, {'end': 1767.829, 'text': 'those domains stay as such.', 'start': 1765.707, 'duration': 2.122}], 'summary': 'Protein domains are stable functional and evolutionary building blocks.', 'duration': 27.524, 'max_score': 1740.305, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1740305.jpg'}, {'end': 1905.826, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1866.423, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 1868.484, 'text': "It's like little tails, little heads.", 'start': 1866.423, 'duration': 2.061}, {'end': 1872.286, 'text': "So we do have tails, so they're called termini, C and N termini.", 'start': 1868.524, 'duration': 3.762}, {'end': 1879.49, 'text': 'So these are things right on one and another ends of the protein sequence.', 'start': 1872.346, 'duration': 7.144}, {'end': 1882.551, 'text': 'So they are also very important.', 'start': 1880.15, 'duration': 2.401}, {'end': 1887.274, 'text': 'So they attribute it to very specific interactions between the proteins.', 'start': 1882.591, 'duration': 4.683}, {'end': 1890.636, 'text': "But you're referring to the links between domains.", 'start': 1888.234, 'duration': 2.402}, {'end': 1892.017, 'text': 'That connect the domains.', 'start': 1890.836, 'duration': 1.181}, {'end': 1905.826, 'text': 'And apart from just the simple perspective, if you have a very short linker, you have two domains next to each other.', 'start': 1892.777, 'duration': 13.049}], 'summary': 'Proteins have termini, which are crucial for specific interactions and are linked by short linkers.', 'duration': 39.403, 'max_score': 1866.423, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1866423.jpg'}, {'end': 2054.679, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2021.067, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 2030.309, 'text': 'It actually can produce multiple functionally active protein products.', 'start': 2021.067, 'duration': 9.242}, {'end': 2037.431, 'text': 'And each of them is called an alternatively spliced product.', 'start': 2031.31, 'duration': 6.121}, {'end': 2043.272, 'text': 'The reason it happens is that if you look at the gene, it actually has also blocks.', 'start': 2037.951, 'duration': 5.321}, {'end': 2050.356, 'text': "And the blocks, some of which, and it's essentially, it goes like this.", 'start': 2045.812, 'duration': 4.544}, {'end': 2053.757, 'text': 'So we have a block that will later be translated.', 'start': 2050.716, 'duration': 3.041}, {'end': 2054.679, 'text': 'We call it exon.', 'start': 2053.898, 'duration': 0.781}], 'summary': 'Gene can produce multiple active protein products via alternative splicing.', 'duration': 33.612, 'max_score': 2021.067, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2021067.jpg'}, {'end': 2177.488, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2141.164, 'weight': 8, 'content': [{'end': 2151.708, 'text': "It's a dynamic event that happens in response to to disease or in response to certain developmental stage of a cell.", 'start': 2141.164, 'duration': 10.544}, {'end': 2163.851, 'text': "And this is an incredibly complex layer that also undergoes, I mean, because it's at the gene level, right? So it undergoes certain evolution.", 'start': 2152.468, 'duration': 11.383}, {'end': 2177.488, 'text': 'And now we have this interplay between what is happening in the protein world and what is happening in the gene and RNA world.', 'start': 2165.662, 'duration': 11.826}], 'summary': 'Dynamic event responds to disease, cell development. incredibly complex gene-level evolution.', 'duration': 36.324, 'max_score': 2141.164, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2141164.jpg'}], 'start': 1196.829, 'title': 'Virus evolution and protein functions', 'summary': 'Discusses the evolutionary stability of the covid-19 virus, its mutational potential, concerns around vaccine resistance, and the efficiency and function of proteins, highlighting the hierarchical complexities in protein organization, protein domain linkers, interactions, and alternative splicing in eukaryotes, enabled by next generation sequencing techniques such as rna-seq.', 'chapters': [{'end': 1543.32, 'start': 1196.829, 'title': 'Covid-19 virus evolution', 'summary': "Discusses the evolutionary stability of the covid-19 virus, its mutational potential, and the concerns around vaccine resistance, emphasizing the need to understand the virus's evolution and forecasting its future evolutionary traces.", 'duration': 346.491, 'highlights': ['The COVID-19 virus is evolutionary more stable compared to the spike protein, potentially impacting its mutational behavior. The speaker highlights the evolutionary stability of the COVID-19 virus in comparison to the spike protein, indicating the potential impact on mutational behavior.', 'Viruses evolve through mutations, and recent jumps from human to other species pose concerns about neutral or damaging mutations in the virus. The discussion addresses the concerns regarding neutral or damaging mutations in the virus due to its recent jumps from human to other species, emphasizing the evolutionary nature of viruses.', "The need to study the virus's evolution to understand mechanisms for inter-species jumps and resistance to vaccines and treatments, enabling the forecast of its evolutionary traces. The importance of studying the virus's evolution is emphasized to understand the mechanisms for inter-species jumps and resistance to vaccines and treatments, facilitating the forecasting of its evolutionary traces.", "Discussion about specific parts of the virus, their potential impact if mutated, and the need to understand their role in the effectiveness of the virus. The conversation delves into the potential impact of mutations in specific parts of the virus and underscores the importance of understanding their role in the virus's effectiveness.", "Concerns about the virus's mutational behavior and the potential evolutionary pressure due to the ongoing vaccine deployment. The concerns regarding the virus's mutational behavior and the evolutionary pressure resulting from the ongoing vaccine deployment are highlighted, reflecting the current COVID-19 landscape."]}, {'end': 1833.169, 'start': 1543.5, 'title': 'Evolution of proteins: efficiency and function', 'summary': 'Discusses the potential for a virus to become more efficient through mutations in its functions, specifically focusing on the attachment to ace2 receptor and the evolution of proteins from a common ancestor, highlighting the hierarchical complexities in protein organization and the stability of protein domains through evolution.', 'duration': 289.669, 'highlights': ["The potential for a virus to become more efficient through mutations in its functions, such as the attachment to ACE2 receptor, is discussed, emphasizing the impact of mutations on the virus's functioning.", 'The evolution of proteins from a common ancestor to millions of proteins over 3.5 billion years is highlighted, indicating the ongoing expansion of the protein universe and the evolutionary significance of protein modularity.', 'The hierarchical complexities in protein organization and the stability of protein domains through evolution are emphasized, illustrating the functional and evolutionary building blocks represented by protein domains and the rarity of evolutionary events that would split these domains into fragments.']}, {'end': 1950.639, 'start': 1833.469, 'title': 'Protein domain linkers and interactions', 'summary': 'Discusses the significance of protein domain linkers, particularly their flexible nature and role in spatial reorganization and protein interactions, which evolve based on different driving laws of evolution.', 'duration': 117.17, 'highlights': ['The linkers between protein domains, known as termini, play a crucial role in specific interactions between proteins.', 'Protein domain linkers with different lengths lead to either forced proximity or extreme flexibility, resulting in spatial reorganization.', 'The flexible nature of protein domain linkers allows them to adapt to various shapes, making them effective interactors in protein-protein interactions.']}, {'end': 2177.488, 'start': 1950.639, 'title': 'Alternative splicing: complexity and evolution', 'summary': 'Discusses the concept of alternative splicing in eukaryotes, highlighting that genes can produce multiple functionally active protein products and undergo dynamic events in response to disease or developmental stages, enabled by next generation sequencing techniques such as rna-seq.', 'duration': 226.849, 'highlights': ['Genes can produce multiple functionally active protein products through alternative splicing In eukaryotes, genes can produce multiple functionally active protein products through alternative splicing, where exons and introns are alternatively assembled to create different protein products.', 'Dynamic events of alternative splicing in response to disease or developmental stages Next generation sequencing techniques such as RNA-seq enable the observation of dynamic events of alternative splicing in response to disease or certain developmental stages of a cell, adding a complex layer at the gene level.', 'Complex interplay between protein world and gene/RNA world There is a complex interplay between what is happening in the protein world and what is happening in the gene and RNA world, with alternative splicing adding a new level of complexity and undergoing certain evolution.']}], 'duration': 980.659, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o1196829.jpg', 'highlights': ['The COVID-19 virus is evolutionary more stable compared to the spike protein, potentially impacting its mutational behavior.', 'Viruses evolve through mutations, and recent jumps from human to other species pose concerns about neutral or damaging mutations in the virus.', "The need to study the virus's evolution to understand mechanisms for inter-species jumps and resistance to vaccines and treatments, enabling the forecast of its evolutionary traces.", "The potential for a virus to become more efficient through mutations in its functions, such as the attachment to ACE2 receptor, is discussed, emphasizing the impact of mutations on the virus's functioning.", 'The evolution of proteins from a common ancestor to millions of proteins over 3.5 billion years is highlighted, indicating the ongoing expansion of the protein universe and the evolutionary significance of protein modularity.', 'The hierarchical complexities in protein organization and the stability of protein domains through evolution are emphasized, illustrating the functional and evolutionary building blocks represented by protein domains and the rarity of evolutionary events that would split these domains into fragments.', 'The linkers between protein domains, known as termini, play a crucial role in specific interactions between proteins.', 'Genes can produce multiple functionally active protein products through alternative splicing In eukaryotes, genes can produce multiple functionally active protein products through alternative splicing, where exons and introns are alternatively assembled to create different protein products.', 'Dynamic events of alternative splicing in response to disease or developmental stages Next generation sequencing techniques such as RNA-seq enable the observation of dynamic events of alternative splicing in response to disease or certain developmental stages of a cell, adding a complex layer at the gene level.']}, {'end': 2671.78, 'segs': [{'end': 2214.926, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2178.328, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 2190.013, 'text': "And for example, it's often that we see that the boundaries of these exons coincide with the boundaries of the protein domains.", 'start': 2178.328, 'duration': 11.685}, {'end': 2195.796, 'text': 'So there is this close interplay to that.', 'start': 2192.174, 'duration': 3.622}, {'end': 2204.361, 'text': "It's not always, I mean, otherwise it would be too simple, right? But we do see the connection between those sort of machineries.", 'start': 2196.557, 'duration': 7.804}, {'end': 2214.926, 'text': 'And obviously the evolution will pick up this complexity and select for whatever is successful.', 'start': 2205.161, 'duration': 9.765}], 'summary': 'Exons often coincide with protein domains, showing interplay. evolution selects successful complexity.', 'duration': 36.598, 'max_score': 2178.328, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2178328.jpg'}, {'end': 2271.915, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2243.057, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 2245.759, 'text': 'The whole purpose of the program is to copy itself.', 'start': 2243.057, 'duration': 2.702}, {'end': 2250.542, 'text': 'So it prints copies of itself, but can also carry information inside of it.', 'start': 2246.279, 'duration': 4.263}, {'end': 2259.508, 'text': "So it's a very kind of crude, fun exercise of can we sort of replicate these ideas from cells?", 'start': 2250.982, 'duration': 8.526}, {'end': 2262.29, 'text': 'Can we have a computer program that, when you run it,', 'start': 2260.008, 'duration': 2.282}, {'end': 2269.634, 'text': 'just print itself the entirety of itself and does it in different programming languages and so on?', 'start': 2263.03, 'duration': 6.604}, {'end': 2271.915, 'text': "I've been playing around and writing them.", 'start': 2270.054, 'duration': 1.861}], 'summary': 'Program replicates itself, carrying information. explores cell replication in different languages.', 'duration': 28.858, 'max_score': 2243.057, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2243057.jpg'}, {'end': 2382.613, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2354.841, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 2359.202, 'text': "You know, in computer science, we don't often think about programs.", 'start': 2354.841, 'duration': 4.361}, {'end': 2365.645, 'text': "There's like the machine learning world now that's still kind of basic programs.", 'start': 2359.222, 'duration': 6.423}, {'end': 2371.106, 'text': "And then there's humans that replicate themselves, right? And there's these mutations and so on.", 'start': 2366.325, 'duration': 4.781}, {'end': 2380.13, 'text': "Do you think we'll ever have a world where there's programs that kind of have an evolutionary process.", 'start': 2372.847, 'duration': 7.283}, {'end': 2382.613, 'text': "So I'm not talking about evolutionary algorithms,", 'start': 2380.651, 'duration': 1.962}], 'summary': 'Computer science explores replicating programs and evolutionary processes.', 'duration': 27.772, 'max_score': 2354.841, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2354841.jpg'}, {'end': 2486.076, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2458.349, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 2463.51, 'text': 'Like to have like agents that, you know, we have social networks with millions of people and they interact.', 'start': 2458.349, 'duration': 5.161}, {'end': 2469.711, 'text': "I think it's interesting to inject into that, it was already injected into that bots, right? But those bots are pretty dumb.", 'start': 2463.87, 'duration': 5.841}, {'end': 2474.293, 'text': "You know, they're, They're probably pretty dumb algorithms.", 'start': 2471.232, 'duration': 3.061}, {'end': 2480.014, 'text': "You know, it's interesting to think that there might be bots that evolve together with humans.", 'start': 2475.933, 'duration': 4.081}, {'end': 2486.076, 'text': "And there's the sea of humans and robots that are operating first in the digital space.", 'start': 2480.574, 'duration': 5.502}], 'summary': 'Exploring the idea of evolving bots interacting with millions of people in digital space.', 'duration': 27.727, 'max_score': 2458.349, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2458349.jpg'}, {'end': 2628.935, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2590.108, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 2596.495, 'text': 'Then you have, you know, other sort of nature-inspired algorithms, right?', 'start': 2590.108, 'duration': 6.387}, {'end': 2605.382, 'text': 'So one of the reasons that I think one of the funnest one is the slime-based algorithm.', 'start': 2596.515, 'duration': 8.867}, {'end': 2615.728, 'text': 'I think the first was introduced by the Japanese group where it was able to solve some pretty complex problems.', 'start': 2605.842, 'duration': 9.886}, {'end': 2628.935, 'text': "And then I think there are still a lot of things we've yet to borrow from the nature right?", 'start': 2616.688, 'duration': 12.247}], 'summary': 'Nature-inspired algorithms like slime-based algorithm solving complex problems have potential for further development.', 'duration': 38.827, 'max_score': 2590.108, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2590108.jpg'}], 'start': 2178.328, 'title': 'Evolution of self-replicating programs', 'summary': 'Explores the complex interplay between exons and protein domains, and draws parallels between biological systems and self-replicating computer programs, highlighting the challenge of writing a program that replicates itself. it also discusses the potential evolution of programs in computer science and the impact of such a scenario.', 'chapters': [{'end': 2353.209, 'start': 2178.328, 'title': 'Cell complexity and self-replicating programs', 'summary': 'Discusses the complex interplay between exons and protein domains, the evolution of complexity, and draws a comparison to self-replicating computer programs, highlighting the challenge of writing a program that replicates itself.', 'duration': 174.881, 'highlights': ['The close interplay between exons and protein domains and the evolution of complexity is discussed, highlighting the connection between cellular machineries and the selection of successful traits.', "The comparison to self-replicating computer programs, specifically mentioning Douglas Hofstadter's 'Quine' and the challenge of writing a program that replicates itself, is presented, emphasizing the complexity and fun exercise of replicating cellular ideas in computer programs.", 'The fun exercise of replicating cellular ideas in computer programs is described, including the challenge of writing a program that prints itself in different programming languages and the historical context of this task in informatics Olympiads, adding depth to the discussion of self-replicating programs.']}, {'end': 2671.78, 'start': 2354.841, 'title': 'Evolution of programs in computer science', 'summary': 'Discusses the possibility of programs in computer science evolving and replicating themselves, drawing parallels to biological systems, and explores the potential impact and challenges of such a scenario.', 'duration': 316.939, 'highlights': ['The concept of programs evolving and replicating themselves is discussed, drawing parallels to biological systems, and the potential impact and challenges of such a scenario. The conversation delves into the idea of programs evolving and replicating themselves, akin to biological systems, and explores the potential impact and challenges of such a scenario.', 'The potential of creating bots that evolve alongside humans and the challenges and implications of such a development are explored. The possibility of bots evolving alongside humans is considered, with a focus on the challenges and implications of such a scenario.', 'The utilization of nature-inspired algorithms, such as slime-based algorithms and neural networks, and the exploration of further potential inspirations from nature are discussed. The conversation includes the exploration of nature-inspired algorithms like slime-based algorithms and neural networks, and the potential for further inspirations from nature.']}], 'duration': 493.452, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2178328.jpg', 'highlights': ['The close interplay between exons and protein domains and the evolution of complexity is discussed, highlighting the connection between cellular machineries and the selection of successful traits.', "The comparison to self-replicating computer programs, specifically mentioning Douglas Hofstadter's 'Quine' and the challenge of writing a program that replicates itself, is presented, emphasizing the complexity and fun exercise of replicating cellular ideas in computer programs.", 'The concept of programs evolving and replicating themselves is discussed, drawing parallels to biological systems, and the potential impact and challenges of such a scenario.', 'The potential of creating bots that evolve alongside humans and the challenges and implications of such a development are explored.', 'The utilization of nature-inspired algorithms, such as slime-based algorithms and neural networks, and the exploration of further potential inspirations from nature are discussed.']}, {'end': 3873.161, 'segs': [{'end': 2697.838, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2672.18, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 2678.746, 'text': "And maybe if you throw a little bit of that biological spice in there, you'll come up with something cool.", 'start': 2672.18, 'duration': 6.566}, {'end': 2682.329, 'text': "I'm not sure if you're familiar with the Drake equation.", 'start': 2679.407, 'duration': 2.922}, {'end': 2688.813, 'text': 'I just did a video on it yesterday because I wanted to give my own estimate of it.', 'start': 2683.951, 'duration': 4.862}, {'end': 2696.777, 'text': "It's an equation that combines a bunch of factors to estimate how many alien civilizations are in the galaxy.", 'start': 2690.194, 'duration': 6.583}, {'end': 2697.838, 'text': "Oh yeah, I've heard about it.", 'start': 2696.837, 'duration': 1.001}], 'summary': 'The drake equation estimates alien civilizations in the galaxy.', 'duration': 25.658, 'max_score': 2672.18, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2672180.jpg'}, {'end': 2782.639, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2748.725, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 2751.067, 'text': 'what would you put that percent at on Earth?', 'start': 2748.725, 'duration': 2.342}, {'end': 2754.189, 'text': 'And, in general, do you have something?', 'start': 2751.927, 'duration': 2.262}, {'end': 2757.791, 'text': 'do you have thoughts about how life might have started??', 'start': 2754.189, 'duration': 3.602}, {'end': 2762.835, 'text': 'You know, like the proteins being the first kind of one of the early jumping points?', 'start': 2757.811, 'duration': 5.024}, {'end': 2778.816, 'text': 'I think back in 2018, there was a very exciting paper published in Nature where they found one of the simplest amino acids glycine.', 'start': 2764.797, 'duration': 14.019}, {'end': 2782.639, 'text': 'in a comet dust.', 'start': 2780.077, 'duration': 2.562}], 'summary': 'Scientists discovered glycine, one of the simplest amino acids, in comet dust in 2018.', 'duration': 33.914, 'max_score': 2748.725, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2748725.jpg'}, {'end': 2970.887, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2945.948, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 2952.816, 'text': 'so special might be unique in our galaxy and potentially, you know, close to unique in the entire universe.', 'start': 2945.948, 'duration': 6.868}, {'end': 2955.839, 'text': "Like it's very difficult to reconstruct those same conditions.", 'start': 2952.856, 'duration': 2.983}, {'end': 2962.066, 'text': 'And what the rare earth hypothesis argues is all those different conditions are essential for life.', 'start': 2956.44, 'duration': 5.626}, {'end': 2970.887, 'text': "And so that's sort of the counter, you know, like all the things we, thinking that Earth is pretty average.", 'start': 2963.067, 'duration': 7.82}], 'summary': "Rare earth hypothesis suggests earth's uniqueness in the universe due to essential life-supporting conditions.", 'duration': 24.939, 'max_score': 2945.948, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2945948.jpg'}, {'end': 3147.647, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3116.326, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 3122.909, 'text': "It's like ants thinking that their little colony is the unique thing and everything else doesn't exist.", 'start': 3116.326, 'duration': 6.583}, {'end': 3130.613, 'text': "I mean it's also very possible that that's the extreme and we're just not able to maybe comprehend the nature of that.", 'start': 3123.209, 'duration': 7.404}, {'end': 3141.321, 'text': 'Just to stick on alien life for just a brief moment more, there is some signs of life on Venus in gaseous form.', 'start': 3132.914, 'duration': 8.407}, {'end': 3147.647, 'text': "There's hope for life on Mars, probably extinct.", 'start': 3142.262, 'duration': 5.385}], 'summary': 'Possible signs of life on venus in gaseous form, hope for life on mars.', 'duration': 31.321, 'max_score': 3116.326, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3116326.jpg'}, {'end': 3197.11, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3169.175, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 3176.478, 'text': 'Is that exciting or is it terrifying to you that we might find life? Do you hope we find life? I certainly do hope that we find life.', 'start': 3169.175, 'duration': 7.303}, {'end': 3188.506, 'text': 'I mean, it was very exciting to hear about this news about the possible life on Venus.', 'start': 3177.959, 'duration': 10.547}, {'end': 3197.11, 'text': "It'd be nice to have hard evidence of something, which is what the hope is for from Mars and Europa.", 'start': 3189.327, 'duration': 7.783}], 'summary': 'Exciting news about possible life on venus; hope for evidence from mars and europa.', 'duration': 27.935, 'max_score': 3169.175, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3169175.jpg'}, {'end': 3252.94, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3227, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 3231.384, 'text': 'I think that that would be another turning point for the science.', 'start': 3227, 'duration': 4.384}, {'end': 3235.608, 'text': "And, especially if it's different, in some very new way.", 'start': 3232.065, 'duration': 3.543}, {'end': 3244.936, 'text': "that's exciting, because that says that's a definitive state, not a definitive, but a pretty strong statement that life is everywhere in the universe.", 'start': 3235.608, 'duration': 9.328}, {'end': 3247.478, 'text': "To me, at least, that's really exciting.", 'start': 3245.516, 'duration': 1.962}, {'end': 3252.94, 'text': 'You brought up Joshua Lederberg in an offline conversation.', 'start': 3249.019, 'duration': 3.921}], 'summary': 'Discovery of life in the universe would be a turning point for science, indicating its widespread existence.', 'duration': 25.94, 'max_score': 3227, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3227000.jpg'}, {'end': 3585.247, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3549.62, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 3555.626, 'text': 'But back in 2001, he was a professor emeritus at Rockefeller University.', 'start': 3549.62, 'duration': 6.006}, {'end': 3566.815, 'text': 'And that was actually, believe it or not, one of the One of the reasons I decided to join, as a postdoc,', 'start': 3556.106, 'duration': 10.709}, {'end': 3577.722, 'text': 'the group of Andrei Saleh who was at Rockefeller University, was the hope that I could actually have a chance to meet Joshua in person.', 'start': 3566.815, 'duration': 10.907}, {'end': 3581.585, 'text': 'And I met him very briefly, just briefly.', 'start': 3578.143, 'duration': 3.442}, {'end': 3585.247, 'text': 'Because he was working.', 'start': 3583.226, 'duration': 2.021}], 'summary': 'In 2001, joshua was a professor emeritus at rockefeller university. the speaker had hoped to meet him during their postdoc at the university.', 'duration': 35.627, 'max_score': 3549.62, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3549620.jpg'}, {'end': 3726.314, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3689.86, 'weight': 8, 'content': [{'end': 3702.329, 'text': 'computer science and to design this so-called expert system that takes into account, that takes as an input the mass spec data,', 'start': 3689.86, 'duration': 12.469}, {'end': 3715.886, 'text': 'the possible database of possible molecules And essentially try to sort of, induce the molecule that would correspond to this spectra.', 'start': 3702.329, 'duration': 13.557}, {'end': 3726.314, 'text': 'Or essentially what this project ended up being was that it would provide a list of candidates.', 'start': 3716.367, 'duration': 9.947}], 'summary': 'Designing an expert system to analyze mass spec data and provide a list of candidate molecules.', 'duration': 36.454, 'max_score': 3689.86, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3689860.jpg'}, {'end': 3781.347, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3750.744, 'weight': 9, 'content': [{'end': 3762.769, 'text': "you know that it's, and this was essentially the origin of the modern bioinformatics cheminformatics, you know, back in the 60s.", 'start': 3750.744, 'duration': 12.025}, {'end': 3763.69, 'text': "So that's you know.", 'start': 3762.789, 'duration': 0.901}, {'end': 3781.347, 'text': 'Every time you deal with projects like this, with research like this, the power of the intelligence of these people is just overwhelming.', 'start': 3765.231, 'duration': 16.116}], 'summary': 'Modern bioinformatics and cheminformatics originated in the 60s, showcasing overwhelming intelligence in research projects.', 'duration': 30.603, 'max_score': 3750.744, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3750744.jpg'}], 'start': 2672.18, 'title': 'Probability of alien life', 'summary': "Delves into the drake equation estimating alien civilizations, the rare earth hypothesis, and lederberg's impact on bioinformatics, highlighting the probability of life, planetary uniqueness, and the influence of senior scientists on researchers.", 'chapters': [{'end': 2821.075, 'start': 2672.18, 'title': 'Probability of life in the galaxy', 'summary': 'Discusses the drake equation, which estimates the number of alien civilizations in the galaxy based on factors like the number of stars born, average planets per star, habitable planets, and the probability of life emerging, with the speaker estimating the latter at 1% and mentioning the discovery of glycine in a comet dust as evidence.', 'duration': 148.895, 'highlights': ['The Drake equation estimates the number of alien civilizations in the galaxy based on factors like the number of stars born, average planets per star, habitable planets, and the probability of life emerging.', 'The speaker estimates the probability of life developing on a habitable planet at 1%.', 'A 2018 paper published in Nature found traces of glycine, one of the simplest amino acids, in a comet dust, suggesting potential evidence for the origin of life.']}, {'end': 3377.5, 'start': 2821.075, 'title': 'Probability of alien life and rare earth hypothesis', 'summary': 'Discusses the probability of alien life and the rare earth hypothesis, considering the conditions for life on earth as potentially unique in the universe, highlighting the excitement of potential discoveries and the implications for the understanding of life beyond earth.', 'duration': 556.425, 'highlights': ["The conditions for life on Earth are considered potentially unique in the universe, leading to the Rare Earth hypothesis, which argues that Earth's conditions are essential for life, indicating a low probability of similar conditions elsewhere. The discussion of the Rare Earth hypothesis challenges the perception of Earth as an average planet and suggests that the conditions for life on Earth might be unique in the universe, indicating a low probability of similar conditions elsewhere.", "The excitement and hope for discovering life beyond Earth, particularly in gaseous form on Venus and potential basic bacteria on Mars and Jupiter's moon Europa, represent significant turning points for science. The anticipation of discovering life beyond Earth, including the potential findings of life in gaseous form on Venus and basic bacteria on Mars and Jupiter's moon Europa, is highlighted as a significant advancement for science.", 'The potential implications of discovering alien life, especially if it differs significantly from life on Earth, are considered to be a strong statement about the ubiquity of life in the universe, leading to an exciting prospect for scientific advancement. The potential discovery of alien life, particularly if it differs significantly from life on Earth, is seen as a strong statement about the ubiquity of life in the universe, representing an exciting prospect for scientific advancement.', "The discussion of Joshua Lederberg's contributions to the understanding of artificial intelligence and his work in the field of biology and space exploration provides a personal connection to the topic of alien life and its potential discovery. The personal connection to the topic of alien life is established through the discussion of Joshua Lederberg's contributions to artificial intelligence and his involvement in biology and space exploration."]}, {'end': 3619.197, 'start': 3377.56, 'title': 'Encounter with joshua lederberg on ccl forum', 'summary': "Discusses the author's experience of seeking advice on a forum, receiving a response from nobel laureate joshua lederberg, and the subsequent impact on the author's career, showcasing the significance of online forums in knowledge exchange and the influence of senior scientists on young researchers.", 'duration': 241.637, 'highlights': ['The author sought advice on the CCL forum and received a response from Nobel laureate Joshua Lederberg, highlighting the importance of online forums in knowledge exchange and networking.', "Joshua Lederberg's message indicated conceptual similarities with the author's project, showcasing the influence of senior scientists on young researchers and the potential impact of their guidance.", "The encounter with Joshua Lederberg influenced the author's decision to join the group of Andrei Saleh at Rockefeller University as a postdoc, demonstrating the profound impact of interactions with senior scientists on career decisions and aspirations.", "Joshua Lederberg, a Nobel Prize winner at a young age, passed away in 2008, emphasizing the enduring impact of his contributions to the scientific community and the author's brief encounter with him in 2001.", "The author's exploration of dendral, a project dating back to the 1960s, revealed profound ideas and concepts, highlighting the enduring significance of scientific contributions over time."]}, {'end': 3873.161, 'start': 3619.277, 'title': "Lederberg's expert system", 'summary': "Discusses lederberg's 60s project of creating an expert system for studying extraterrestrial molecules through mass spec analysis, which led to the origin of modern bioinformatics and cheminformatics.", 'duration': 253.884, 'highlights': ["Lederberg's project aimed to create an expert system that would analyze mass spec data and provide a list of candidate molecules for study, with the original goal of automating the entire process.", 'The project was the origin of modern bioinformatics and cheminformatics, showcasing the overwhelming intelligence of the people involved in the research back in the 60s.', "The discussion raises the question of why expert systems, like Lederberg's, failed or became obsolete, presenting two contrasting perspectives on their fate in the field of AI."]}], 'duration': 1200.981, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o2672180.jpg', 'highlights': ['The Drake equation estimates the number of alien civilizations in the galaxy based on various factors.', 'A 2018 paper found traces of glycine in comet dust, suggesting potential evidence for the origin of life.', 'The Rare Earth hypothesis challenges the perception of Earth as an average planet and suggests unique conditions for life.', 'The anticipation of discovering life beyond Earth represents a significant advancement for science.', 'The potential implications of discovering alien life are considered a strong statement about the ubiquity of life in the universe.', "The personal connection to the topic of alien life is established through the discussion of Joshua Lederberg's contributions.", "The encounter with Joshua Lederberg influenced the author's decision to join a postdoc group at Rockefeller University.", "Joshua Lederberg's passing in 2008 emphasized the enduring impact of his contributions to the scientific community.", "Lederberg's project aimed to create an expert system that would analyze mass spec data and provide a list of candidate molecules for study.", 'The project was the origin of modern bioinformatics and cheminformatics, showcasing the overwhelming intelligence of the people involved in the research back in the 60s.']}, {'end': 4681.36, 'segs': [{'end': 3929.061, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3899.001, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 3903.842, 'text': 'you know the most successful algorithms, including AlphaFault right?', 'start': 3899.001, 'duration': 4.841}, {'end': 3908.691, 'text': 'You built in the knowledge about the domain that you study.', 'start': 3904.182, 'duration': 4.509}, {'end': 3912.157, 'text': 'So you built in your expertise.', 'start': 3910.076, 'duration': 2.081}, {'end': 3921.119, 'text': "So speaking of AlphaFold, so DeepMind's AlphaFold 2 recently was announced to have, quote unquote, solved protein folding.", 'start': 3912.917, 'duration': 8.202}, {'end': 3929.061, 'text': 'How exciting is this to you? It seems to be one of the exciting things that have happened in 2020.', 'start': 3922.559, 'duration': 6.502}], 'summary': 'Alphafold 2 claimed to solve protein folding, a significant 2020 achievement.', 'duration': 30.06, 'max_score': 3899.001, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3899001.jpg'}, {'end': 4004.614, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3973.619, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 3985.311, 'text': 'So the predicting protein functions, predicting effects of mutations, on protein functions than predicting protein-protein interactions.', 'start': 3973.619, 'duration': 11.692}, {'end': 3991.34, 'text': 'So the original one was CASP, or critical assessment of protein structure.', 'start': 3985.491, 'duration': 5.849}, {'end': 4004.614, 'text': 'Typically what happens during these competitions is experimental.', 'start': 3997.208, 'duration': 7.406}], 'summary': 'Predicting protein functions is more important than predicting protein-protein interactions in casp competitions.', 'duration': 30.995, 'max_score': 3973.619, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3973619.jpg'}, {'end': 4244.73, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4215.708, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 4229.659, 'text': 'obviously, if we are able to predict the end product of protein folding, we are one step closer to understanding the mechanics of the protein folding.', 'start': 4215.708, 'duration': 13.951}, {'end': 4241.207, 'text': 'because we can then potentially look and start probing what are the critical parts of this process and what are not so critical parts of this process.', 'start': 4230.299, 'duration': 10.908}, {'end': 4244.73, 'text': 'So we can start decomposing this.', 'start': 4241.307, 'duration': 3.423}], 'summary': 'Predicting protein folding can aid in understanding mechanics and critical parts of the process.', 'duration': 29.022, 'max_score': 4215.708, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o4215708.jpg'}, {'end': 4631.741, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4601.333, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 4609.621, 'text': "So, while it's tempting to do a complete ab initio, so you just have a protein sequence and nothing else,", 'start': 4601.333, 'duration': 8.288}, {'end': 4613.724, 'text': 'the reality is such that we are overwhelmed with this data.', 'start': 4609.621, 'duration': 4.103}, {'end': 4621.432, 'text': "So why not use it? So yeah, I'm looking forward to reading this paper.", 'start': 4614.265, 'duration': 7.167}, {'end': 4631.741, 'text': "It does seem like in the previous version of AlphaFold, they didn't, for the evolutionary similarity thing, they didn't use machine learning for that.", 'start': 4621.712, 'duration': 10.029}], 'summary': 'Utilize available protein sequence data to enhance analysis and look forward to reading the paper.', 'duration': 30.408, 'max_score': 4601.333, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o4601333.jpg'}], 'start': 3873.241, 'title': 'Alphafold 2: advancements in protein structure prediction', 'summary': "Discusses the significance of alphafold 2's achievement in solving protein folding, its impact on bioinformatics competitions, and its potential to advance the understanding of protein folding mechanisms and structure prediction algorithms. it also covers alphafold 2, a state-of-the-art machine learning system that predicts protein structure by estimating distance matrix and incorporating evolutionary similarity, outperforming others with advancements in protein structure prediction.", 'chapters': [{'end': 4385.534, 'start': 3873.241, 'title': 'Alphafold 2: solving protein folding', 'summary': "Discusses the significance of alphafold 2's achievement in solving protein folding, its impact on bioinformatics competitions, and its potential to advance the understanding of protein folding mechanisms and structure prediction algorithms.", 'duration': 512.293, 'highlights': ["AlphaFold 2's accomplishment in solving protein folding is considered one of the most exciting events of 2020, demonstrating a significant advancement in the field of bioinformatics.", "The CASP competition, known as the 'Bioinformatics Olympic Games,' has historically focused on predicting protein structures and functions, setting the gold standard for protein structure prediction.", 'The ability to predict protein folding end products brings researchers closer to understanding the mechanics of the process, potentially identifying critical and non-critical components and serving as a tool for protein modification and stability prediction.', "AlphaFold's machine learning-based approach outperformed traditional biophysics and bioinformatics methods in de novo protein structure prediction, marking a substantial leap in the field's capabilities.", 'Understanding protein folding mechanisms remains a fundamental and complex question in modern molecular biology, with implications for deeper insights into biological processes beyond folding.']}, {'end': 4681.36, 'start': 4386.618, 'title': 'Alphafold 2: advancements in protein structure prediction', 'summary': 'Discusses alphafold 2, a state-of-the-art machine learning system that predicts protein structure by estimating distance matrix and incorporating evolutionary similarity, outperforming others with advancements in protein structure prediction.', 'duration': 294.742, 'highlights': ['AlphaFold 2 predicts protein structure by estimating the distance matrix and incorporating evolutionary similarity, outperforming others. AlphaFold 2 uses machine learning to estimate the distance matrix and incorporates evolutionary similarity to predict protein structures, demonstrating superior performance.', "AlphaFold 2's incorporation of evolutionary similarity and contact map enables more straightforward protein structure reconstruction. The incorporation of evolutionary similarity and contact map by AlphaFold 2 facilitates a more straightforward protein structure reconstruction process, enhancing its predictive capabilities.", 'Evolutionary similarity is utilized to detect conserved structural properties in proteins, leveraging information from diverse sequences of hundreds or thousands of organisms. The utilization of evolutionary similarity helps in detecting conserved structural properties in proteins by analyzing diverse sequences from hundreds or thousands of organisms, enhancing the understanding of protein stability and diversity.']}], 'duration': 808.119, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o3873241.jpg', 'highlights': ["AlphaFold 2's accomplishment in solving protein folding is considered one of the most exciting events of 2020, demonstrating a significant advancement in the field of bioinformatics.", "The CASP competition, known as the 'Bioinformatics Olympic Games,' has historically focused on predicting protein structures and functions, setting the gold standard for protein structure prediction.", "AlphaFold's machine learning-based approach outperformed traditional biophysics and bioinformatics methods in de novo protein structure prediction, marking a substantial leap in the field's capabilities.", 'AlphaFold 2 predicts protein structure by estimating the distance matrix and incorporating evolutionary similarity, outperforming others. AlphaFold 2 uses machine learning to estimate the distance matrix and incorporates evolutionary similarity to predict protein structures, demonstrating superior performance.', 'The ability to predict protein folding end products brings researchers closer to understanding the mechanics of the process, potentially identifying critical and non-critical components and serving as a tool for protein modification and stability prediction.']}, {'end': 5621.339, 'segs': [{'end': 4748.451, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4711.096, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 4715.098, 'text': 'And even those ones are extremely challenging to solve.', 'start': 4711.096, 'duration': 4.002}, {'end': 4721.942, 'text': 'But now we talk about an average protein that has two, three protein domains.', 'start': 4715.419, 'duration': 6.523}, {'end': 4731.305, 'text': 'If you look at the proteins that are in charge of the process with the neural system, right?', 'start': 4722.482, 'duration': 8.823}, {'end': 4743.489, 'text': 'Perhaps one of the most recently evolved sort of systems in the organism, right?', 'start': 4732.766, 'duration': 10.723}, {'end': 4748.451, 'text': 'All of them, well, the majority of them, are highly multi-domain proteins.', 'start': 4744.169, 'duration': 4.282}], 'summary': 'Neural system proteins are mostly multi-domain, average protein has 2-3 domains.', 'duration': 37.355, 'max_score': 4711.096, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o4711096.jpg'}, {'end': 4992.456, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4895.271, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 4897.993, 'text': 'There is a potential to enhance this information.', 'start': 4895.271, 'duration': 2.722}, {'end': 4906.662, 'text': 'and, you know, use it again to empower the training set.', 'start': 4898.773, 'duration': 7.889}, {'end': 4913.749, 'text': "And it's, I think, I am actually very optimistic.", 'start': 4908.784, 'duration': 4.965}, {'end': 4929.593, 'text': "I think it's been one of this sort of you know turning events where you have a system, that is, you know,", 'start': 4913.809, 'duration': 15.784}, {'end': 4937.744, 'text': 'a machine learning system that is truly better than the sort of the more conventional biophysics based methods.', 'start': 4929.593, 'duration': 8.151}, {'end': 4939.465, 'text': "that's a huge leap.", 'start': 4937.944, 'duration': 1.521}, {'end': 4941.287, 'text': 'this is one of those fun questions.', 'start': 4939.465, 'duration': 1.822}, {'end': 4951.797, 'text': 'but uh, where would you put it in in the uh ranking of the greatest breakthroughs in artificial intelligence history?', 'start': 4941.287, 'duration': 10.51}, {'end': 4955.04, 'text': "so like okay, so let's let's see who's in the running.", 'start': 4951.797, 'duration': 3.243}, {'end': 4955.9, 'text': 'maybe you can correct me.', 'start': 4955.04, 'duration': 0.86}, {'end': 4963.849, 'text': 'so you got like alpha zero and alpha go beating the world champion at the game of Go.', 'start': 4955.9, 'duration': 7.949}, {'end': 4967.253, 'text': 'Thought to be impossible, like 20 years ago.', 'start': 4964.489, 'duration': 2.764}, {'end': 4970.797, 'text': 'Or at least the AI community was highly skeptical.', 'start': 4968.314, 'duration': 2.483}, {'end': 4974.801, 'text': 'Then you got like also Deep Blue original Kasparov.', 'start': 4971.377, 'duration': 3.424}, {'end': 4980.368, 'text': 'You have deep learning itself, like the maybe, what would you say, the AlexNet, ImageNet moment.', 'start': 4975.102, 'duration': 5.266}, {'end': 4987.473, 'text': "So the first neural network achieving human level performance, super not, that's not true.", 'start': 4980.948, 'duration': 6.525}, {'end': 4992.456, 'text': 'Achieving like a big leap in performance on the computer vision problem.', 'start': 4987.993, 'duration': 4.463}], 'summary': 'Potential to enhance and empower training set with better machine learning system, a huge leap in ai history.', 'duration': 97.185, 'max_score': 4895.271, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o4895271.jpg'}, {'end': 5199.704, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5169.893, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 5172.536, 'text': "It's like, nah, you got to put Muhammad Ali at number one.", 'start': 5169.893, 'duration': 2.643}, {'end': 5177.682, 'text': "Same with Deep Blue, even though it's not machine learning based.", 'start': 5173.738, 'duration': 3.944}, {'end': 5184.072, 'text': 'But still it uses advanced search, and search is the integral part of AI, right?', 'start': 5179.228, 'duration': 4.844}, {'end': 5187.594, 'text': "So, as you said, it's- People don't think of it that way at this moment.", 'start': 5184.572, 'duration': 3.022}, {'end': 5195.12, 'text': 'In vogue currently, search is not seen as a fundamental aspect of intelligence, but it very likely is.', 'start': 5187.755, 'duration': 7.365}, {'end': 5199.704, 'text': "In fact, I mean, that's what neural networks are.", 'start': 5197.782, 'duration': 1.922}], 'summary': 'Muhammad ali ranked as top, deep blue uses advanced search integral to ai.', 'duration': 29.811, 'max_score': 5169.893, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5169893.jpg'}, {'end': 5251.694, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5219.961, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 5222.783, 'text': "I think it's called Deep Rembrandt.", 'start': 5219.961, 'duration': 2.822}, {'end': 5226.845, 'text': "It's the project where they trained.", 'start': 5223.544, 'duration': 3.301}, {'end': 5238.309, 'text': 'I think there was a collaboration between the experts in Rembrandt painting in Netherlands and a group, an artificial intelligence group,', 'start': 5226.845, 'duration': 11.464}, {'end': 5242.951, 'text': 'where they train an algorithm to replicate the style of the Rembrandt.', 'start': 5238.309, 'duration': 4.642}, {'end': 5248.253, 'text': 'And they actually printed a portrait that never existed before.', 'start': 5243.031, 'duration': 5.222}, {'end': 5251.694, 'text': 'in the style of Rembrandt.', 'start': 5249.753, 'duration': 1.941}], 'summary': "An ai project, deep rembrandt, replicated rembrandt's style and printed a new portrait.", 'duration': 31.733, 'max_score': 5219.961, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5219961.jpg'}, {'end': 5342.982, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5312.213, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 5316.154, 'text': "It's music and movies, shows and so on and entertainment.", 'start': 5312.213, 'duration': 3.941}, {'end': 5332.059, 'text': "There hasn't been a moment where AI was able to create a piece of music or a piece of cinema or, like Netflix show, that is, you know,", 'start': 5316.694, 'duration': 15.365}, {'end': 5334.94, 'text': "that's sufficiently popular to make a ton of money.", 'start': 5332.059, 'duration': 2.881}, {'end': 5338.761, 'text': 'And that moment would be very, very powerful.', 'start': 5335.82, 'duration': 2.941}, {'end': 5342.982, 'text': "Cause that's like a, that's an AI system being used to make a lot of money.", 'start': 5338.961, 'duration': 4.021}], 'summary': 'Ai has not yet created highly profitable music or cinema, but when it does, it will be a powerful moment.', 'duration': 30.769, 'max_score': 5312.213, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5312213.jpg'}, {'end': 5419.202, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5388.554, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 5391.195, 'text': 'You select parts of the audio you train on.', 'start': 5388.554, 'duration': 2.641}, {'end': 5395.956, 'text': 'You train on it, and it figures stuff out.', 'start': 5392.515, 'duration': 3.441}, {'end': 5396.816, 'text': "It's great.", 'start': 5396.116, 'duration': 0.7}, {'end': 5397.737, 'text': "It's able to detect..", 'start': 5396.856, 'duration': 0.881}, {'end': 5399.557, 'text': 'uh, like the.', 'start': 5398.877, 'duration': 0.68}, {'end': 5407.259, 'text': 'the ability of it to be able to separate voice and music, for example, or voice in anything, is incredible.', 'start': 5399.557, 'duration': 7.702}, {'end': 5409.08, 'text': 'like it, it just.', 'start': 5407.259, 'duration': 1.821}, {'end': 5412.66, 'text': "it's clearly exceptionally good at, uh, you know,", 'start': 5409.08, 'duration': 3.58}, {'end': 5419.202, 'text': 'applying these different neural networks models to to just separate the different kinds of signals from the audio.', 'start': 5412.66, 'duration': 6.542}], 'summary': 'Able to separate voice and music with exceptional precision using neural networks.', 'duration': 30.648, 'max_score': 5388.554, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5388554.jpg'}, {'end': 5505.041, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5468.813, 'weight': 8, 'content': [{'end': 5477.622, 'text': 'And quite a few of them are actually, they have some link to arts.', 'start': 5468.813, 'duration': 8.809}, {'end': 5487.977, 'text': 'I mean, I think last year we had a group who designed an AI producing Hokus, Japanese poems.', 'start': 5477.762, 'duration': 10.215}, {'end': 5498.58, 'text': 'And some of them, so it got trained on the English base.', 'start': 5490.457, 'duration': 8.123}, {'end': 5503.801, 'text': 'And some of them, they get to present the top selection.', 'start': 5498.72, 'duration': 5.081}, {'end': 5505.041, 'text': 'It was pretty good.', 'start': 5504.241, 'duration': 0.8}], 'summary': 'Last year, a group designed an ai producing hokus, japanese poems, trained on english base, presenting top selections.', 'duration': 36.228, 'max_score': 5468.813, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5468813.jpg'}], 'start': 4681.941, 'title': 'Protein folding, ai impact, and ai in art', 'summary': "Delves into the complexity of protein folding, advancements in ai surpassing conventional biophysics methods, the impact of alphafold and deep blue on ai, and ai's role in replicating art and creating music.", 'chapters': [{'end': 5050.825, 'start': 4681.941, 'title': 'Protein folding complexity', 'summary': 'Discusses the complexity of protein folding, particularly focusing on the challenges in understanding multi-domain proteins and the advancements in machine learning systems surpassing conventional biophysics methods, with a comparison to other significant breakthroughs in artificial intelligence history.', 'duration': 368.884, 'highlights': ['Advancements in machine learning surpassing conventional biophysics methods The machine learning system is considered to be truly better than conventional biophysics methods, marking a significant leap in the field.', 'Challenges in understanding multi-domain proteins The majority of proteins responsible for neural processes are highly multi-domain, with some having five, six, or even more domains, posing significant challenges in understanding their folding.', 'Comparing breakthroughs in artificial intelligence history The discussion includes a comparison of the advancements in protein folding with other significant breakthroughs in artificial intelligence history, such as AlphaZero, Deep Blue, deep learning, GPT-3, Boston Dynamics, and autonomous vehicles.']}, {'end': 5219.801, 'start': 5050.825, 'title': 'Impact of ai on society', 'summary': "Discusses the impact of alphafold and the significance of deep blue's victory over kasparov, highlighting the groundbreaking events in the history of ai as well as the integral role of search in ai.", 'duration': 168.976, 'highlights': ['The victory of Deep Blue over Kasparov is considered one of the groundbreaking events in the history of AI, akin to Muhammad Ali versus Mike Tyson.', "Deep Blue's victory is recognized as the first time a machine beat a human at such a scale, representing a significant milestone in AI history.", 'The chapter emphasizes the integral role of search in AI, highlighting that all of intelligence is some form of search and that neural networks perform search on the space of parameters.']}, {'end': 5621.339, 'start': 5219.961, 'title': 'Ai in art and music', 'summary': 'Discusses the use of ai in replicating art styles like rembrandt and the challenges of creating popular music using ai, while also highlighting the use of ai in audio processing and ai projects related to arts.', 'duration': 401.378, 'highlights': ["AI's ability to replicate the style of Rembrandt and create a portrait that never existed before using an algorithm is a noteworthy achievement in the space of art. The project Deep Rembrandt trained an algorithm to replicate the style of Rembrandt, resulting in the creation of a portrait that never existed before.", "Challenges in achieving superhuman level performance in the space of art and music using AI are discussed, citing the preferences for human-created pieces and the lack of sufficiently popular AI-generated music or cinema. Despite significant achievements in AI, there hasn't been a moment where AI has achieved superhuman level performance in art or music, as human-created pieces are still more popular and AI-generated music or cinema has not gained sufficient popularity to make a significant amount of money.", 'The integration of AI in audio editing and the use of machine learning in tools like iZotope for audio processing is highlighted, emphasizing the capability of AI to separate different signals from audio. The use of AI in audio editing, particularly in tools like iZotope, which utilize machine learning, demonstrates the capability of AI to separate different signals from audio, showcasing its potential in audio processing.', 'AI projects related to arts, such as generating Japanese poems and teaching AI to play different genres of music, are discussed, highlighting the challenges in teaching AI to play classical music due to its mathematical nature. AI projects related to arts, including generating Japanese poems and teaching AI to play different genres of music, are discussed, with a focus on the challenges of teaching AI to play classical music due to its mathematical nature.']}], 'duration': 939.398, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o4681941.jpg', 'highlights': ['Advancements in machine learning surpassing conventional biophysics methods', 'Challenges in understanding multi-domain proteins', 'Comparing breakthroughs in artificial intelligence history', 'The victory of Deep Blue over Kasparov as a groundbreaking event in AI history', 'The integral role of search in AI and its relation to intelligence', "AI's ability to replicate the style of Rembrandt and create a portrait that never existed before", 'Challenges in achieving superhuman level performance in the space of art and music using AI', 'The integration of AI in audio editing and its capability to separate different signals from audio', 'AI projects related to arts, such as generating Japanese poems and teaching AI to play different genres of music']}, {'end': 7947.519, 'segs': [{'end': 5799.671, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5773.18, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 5782.16, 'text': 'So do you think that kind of thing is also learnable through the AlphaFold2 kind of approach? I mean, the time will tell.', 'start': 5773.18, 'duration': 8.98}, {'end': 5784.621, 'text': 'Is it another level of complexity?', 'start': 5782.46, 'duration': 2.161}, {'end': 5788.004, 'text': 'How big of a jump in complexity is that whole thing?', 'start': 5785.762, 'duration': 2.242}, {'end': 5795.248, 'text': "To me it's yet another level of complexity, because when we talk about protein-protein interactions,", 'start': 5788.104, 'duration': 7.144}, {'end': 5799.671, 'text': 'and there is actually a different challenge for this, called CAPRI.', 'start': 5795.248, 'duration': 4.423}], 'summary': 'Alphafold2 approach may be learnable, but time will tell about its complexity and impact on protein-protein interactions.', 'duration': 26.491, 'max_score': 5773.18, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5773180.jpg'}, {'end': 6240.378, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6213.78, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 6221.545, 'text': 'correct. There are also some, you know, seasonal versus pandemic strains of influenza, right?', 'start': 6213.78, 'duration': 7.765}, {'end': 6225.488, 'text': 'And determining what are the molecular determinants, right?', 'start': 6221.925, 'duration': 3.563}, {'end': 6230.711, 'text': 'So that are built in into the protein sequence, into the gene sequence, right?', 'start': 6225.548, 'duration': 5.163}, {'end': 6238.316, 'text': 'So, and whether or not the machine learning can determine those components, right?', 'start': 6230.751, 'duration': 7.565}, {'end': 6239.017, 'text': 'Oh, interesting.', 'start': 6238.496, 'duration': 0.521}, {'end': 6240.378, 'text': 'So like using machine learning.', 'start': 6239.057, 'duration': 1.321}], 'summary': 'Using machine learning to identify molecular determinants in influenza strains.', 'duration': 26.598, 'max_score': 6213.78, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o6213780.jpg'}, {'end': 6454.092, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 6359.75, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 6371.962, 'text': 'So one is that even if you design a sequence to carry out the actual experimental biology,', 'start': 6359.75, 'duration': 12.212}, {'end': 6379.047, 'text': 'to ensure that all the components working is a completely different matter.', 'start': 6372.543, 'duration': 6.504}, {'end': 6379.827, 'text': 'Difficult process.', 'start': 6379.067, 'duration': 0.76}, {'end': 6396.477, 'text': "Yes, Then we've seen in the past there could be some regulation of the moment the scientific community recognizes that it's now becoming no longer a sort of a fun puzzle for machine learning.", 'start': 6379.867, 'duration': 16.61}, {'end': 6397.278, 'text': 'Could be a weapon.', 'start': 6396.697, 'duration': 0.581}, {'end': 6400.4, 'text': 'Yeah, so then there might be some regulation.', 'start': 6398.018, 'duration': 2.382}, {'end': 6412.229, 'text': 'So I think back in what 2015,, there was the issue on regulating the research on influenza strains,', 'start': 6400.48, 'duration': 11.749}, {'end': 6423.234, 'text': 'right where several groups used sort of the mutation analysis to determine whether or not this strain will jump from one species to another.', 'start': 6412.229, 'duration': 11.005}, {'end': 6429.835, 'text': 'And I think there was like a half a year moratorium on the research and on the paper published,', 'start': 6423.314, 'duration': 6.521}, {'end': 6435.377, 'text': "until scientists analyzed it and decided that it's actually safe.", 'start': 6429.835, 'duration': 5.542}, {'end': 6437.438, 'text': "I forgot what that's called.", 'start': 6436.438, 'duration': 1}, {'end': 6439.4, 'text': 'Something of function, test of function.', 'start': 6437.839, 'duration': 1.561}, {'end': 6440.901, 'text': 'Gain of function.', 'start': 6439.42, 'duration': 1.481}, {'end': 6442.182, 'text': 'Gain of function, yeah.', 'start': 6440.941, 'duration': 1.241}, {'end': 6443.604, 'text': 'Gain of function, loss of function.', 'start': 6442.423, 'duration': 1.181}, {'end': 6444.324, 'text': "That's right, sorry.", 'start': 6443.624, 'duration': 0.7}, {'end': 6452.891, 'text': "It's like, let's watch this thing mutate for a while to see what kind of things we can observe.", 'start': 6447.006, 'duration': 5.885}, {'end': 6454.092, 'text': 'I guess..', 'start': 6452.911, 'duration': 1.181}], 'summary': 'Challenges in ensuring components work in experimental biology; regulation on gain/loss of function research.', 'duration': 94.342, 'max_score': 6359.75, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o6359750.jpg'}, {'end': 6739.353, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6708.942, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 6714.003, 'text': 'How has your understanding and thoughts about this virus changed over those months from the beginning to today?', 'start': 6708.942, 'duration': 5.061}, {'end': 6722.306, 'text': 'One thing that I was really amazed at how efficient the scientific community was.', 'start': 6714.703, 'duration': 7.603}, {'end': 6730.329, 'text': 'I mean even just judging on this very narrow domain of.', 'start': 6723.167, 'duration': 7.162}, {'end': 6739.353, 'text': 'you know protein structure and understanding the structural characterization of this virus from the components point of view.', 'start': 6730.329, 'duration': 9.024}], 'summary': "Scientific community's efficiency in understanding virus structure was impressive", 'duration': 30.411, 'max_score': 6708.942, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o6708942.jpg'}, {'end': 7011.371, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6985.554, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 6995.359, 'text': "So the first book is something that sort of impacted my earlier stage of life, and I'm probably not going to be very original here.", 'start': 6985.554, 'duration': 9.805}, {'end': 6998.581, 'text': "It's Bulgakov's Master and Margarita.", 'start': 6996.4, 'duration': 2.181}, {'end': 7000.583, 'text': "So that's probably, you know..", 'start': 6999.222, 'duration': 1.361}, {'end': 7007.528, 'text': "Well, not for a Russian, maybe it's not super original, but it's a really powerful book for even in English.", 'start': 7001.303, 'duration': 6.225}, {'end': 7008.569, 'text': 'So I read it in English.', 'start': 7007.688, 'duration': 0.881}, {'end': 7011.371, 'text': 'It is incredibly powerful.', 'start': 7009.209, 'duration': 2.162}], 'summary': "Bulgakov's master and margarita had a profound impact, even in english.", 'duration': 25.817, 'max_score': 6985.554, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o6985554.jpg'}, {'end': 7470.436, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7435.402, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 7445.669, 'text': 'And this is, I mean, the reason I put it sort of in this separate section, because this is a book that I reasonably recently listened to.', 'start': 7435.402, 'duration': 10.267}, {'end': 7452.116, 'text': "So it's an audio book, and this is a book called Lab Girl by Hope Jarren.", 'start': 7446.41, 'duration': 5.706}, {'end': 7456.482, 'text': 'So Hope Jarren, she is a scientist.', 'start': 7452.637, 'duration': 3.845}, {'end': 7470.436, 'text': "She's a geochemist that essentially studies the uh, the fossil uh plants, and so she uses the, this fossil, the, the chemical analysis,", 'start': 7456.682, 'duration': 13.754}], 'summary': 'Hope jarren, a geochemist, studies fossil plants in the book lab girl.', 'duration': 35.034, 'max_score': 7435.402, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o7435402.jpg'}, {'end': 7695.247, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7670.997, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 7681.181, 'text': "And, you know, this time I realized that, you know, that that's so important, right? Spending your time with the with the family, with your kids.", 'start': 7670.997, 'duration': 10.184}, {'end': 7691.225, 'text': 'And so that that would be my new year resolution and actually trying to spend as much time as possible Even when the world opens up.', 'start': 7682.021, 'duration': 9.204}, {'end': 7693.826, 'text': "Yeah, that's a beautiful message.", 'start': 7691.325, 'duration': 2.501}, {'end': 7695.247, 'text': "That's a beautiful reminder.", 'start': 7693.846, 'duration': 1.401}], 'summary': 'Resolution to spend more time with family and kids, even post-pandemic.', 'duration': 24.25, 'max_score': 7670.997, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o7670997.jpg'}], 'start': 5623.379, 'title': 'Protein folding and machine learning in science', 'summary': "Explores protein folding complexity, alphafold2's potential, machine learning's role in protein-protein interactions, and its impact on influenza research and future pandemic threats. it also delves into impactful books and 'lab girl' audiobook, emphasizing the emotional depth and personal journey.", 'chapters': [{'end': 5855.397, 'start': 5623.379, 'title': 'Protein folding complexity and alphafold2', 'summary': 'Discusses the complexity of multi-protein folding and protein-protein interactions, focusing on the example of psd95 protein and the potential learnability through alphafold2, emphasizing the additional level of complexity and the challenge of macromolecular interactions.', 'duration': 232.018, 'highlights': ['The PSD95 protein, with five domains, is a key player in neurological processes at the molecular level and acts as a scaffold for orchestrating other proteins, demonstrating the complexity of multi-protein folding and interactions.', 'The flexibility built into PSD95 enables it to function as a multifunctional machine, showcasing the intricate nature of protein structures and their adaptability.', 'The discussion of protein-protein interactions and the challenge of macromolecular interactions, such as those involving proteins and DNA, emphasizes the additional level of complexity and the need for machine learning algorithms to pick up various mechanisms governing molecular interactions.', 'The potential learnability of complex protein structures and interactions through AlphaFold2 is mentioned, with the acknowledgment that it represents another level of complexity and a significant jump in complexity.']}, {'end': 6212.64, 'start': 5855.418, 'title': 'Protein-protein interaction and nobel prizes', 'summary': 'Discusses the critical role of machine learning in scoring protein-protein interactions, the potential for alphafold 2 to lead to nobel prizes, and the use of machine learning in protein design and engineering viruses.', 'duration': 357.222, 'highlights': ['The scoring function for protein-protein interaction is designed to be a machine learning-based one, which was one of the first used in CAPRI.', 'The evolution of science is becoming multifaceted, acknowledging computational methods, and it is inevitable that methods like AlphaFold will be critical in scientific discoveries.', 'Protein design, involving the design of functions and structures, is a prominent area of research, with potential applications in engineering viruses and determining pathogenic strains of viruses using machine learning.']}, {'end': 6462.276, 'start': 6213.78, 'title': 'Machine learning for influenza research', 'summary': 'Discusses the potential use of machine learning to analyze influenza strains and protein sequences to forecast mutations, aid in vaccine development, and anticipate pathogenicity, with a cautionary note about potential misuse and the need for regulation.', 'duration': 248.496, 'highlights': ['Machine learning can be used to forecast potential mutations in influenza strains and aid in vaccine development and antiviral drug development. This highlights the potential practical applications of machine learning in the field of influenza research.', 'Caution is needed regarding the potential misuse of machine learning in influenza research and the importance of regulation to ensure responsible use. This highlights the ethical and regulatory considerations associated with the use of machine learning in this context.', 'The discussion includes the consideration of regulation and caution in the context of gain of function research on influenza strains. This highlights the potential risks associated with gain of function research and the need for regulation to ensure responsible and safe scientific practices.']}, {'end': 6955.746, 'start': 6462.856, 'title': 'Future threats and transparency', 'summary': 'Discusses concerns about the longevity of civilizations, the potential threat of engineered pandemics, the importance of transparency in reducing military secrets, and the rapid advancement in scientific understanding and response to the current pandemic.', 'duration': 492.89, 'highlights': ['The rapid advancement in scientific research has led to a much quicker understanding of the structural characterization of the virus, with the time taken reducing from years to months, and unprecedented levels of virus sequencing allowing for precise tracing of its evolution. Rapid scientific advancement in understanding virus structure and evolution, reduced time from years to months for research, unprecedented levels of virus sequencing for precise tracing.', 'The potential threat of engineered pandemics is a concern, with machine learning being used to design greater weapons of destruction, raising questions about the capability of nature versus humans in designing viruses and the difficulty in targeting viruses as weapons. Concern about the potential threat of engineered pandemics, questions raised about nature vs. human capability in designing viruses, difficulty in targeting viruses as weapons.', 'The importance of transparency in reducing military secrets is emphasized, with a belief that nations will lose power through secrecy in the 21st century and that transparency is more beneficial than secrecy for society. Emphasis on the importance of transparency in reducing military secrets, belief in nations losing power through secrecy, and transparency being more beneficial for society.']}, {'end': 7435.122, 'start': 6956.487, 'title': 'Impactful books and essays', 'summary': "Discusses three impactful books and an essay, including bulgakov's master and margarita, solzhenitsyn's cancer ward, and jonathan neumann's the computer and the brain, highlighting their powerful impact and key insights.", 'duration': 478.635, 'highlights': ["Bulgakov's Master and Margarita: Described as a powerful book that captures Russian culture, it features romance empowered by magic, wit, humor, pain, and love, impacting the reader deeply.", "Solzhenitsyn's Cancer Ward: A profoundly impactful book depicting the experiences of a prisoner diagnosed with cancer in a Soviet camp, with allegorical references to the Soviet regime and the author's own experiences, making it the most powerful work among Solzhenitsyn's books.", "Jonathan Neumann's The Computer and the Brain: An essay showcasing incredible intellectual power, released after the author's death, filled with compact paragraphs of incredible ideas, drawing parallels between brain computing power, neural systems, and computers, making it a difficult yet impactful read."]}, {'end': 7947.519, 'start': 7435.402, 'title': "Lab girl: a scientist's personal journey", 'summary': "Discusses the impactful audiobook 'lab girl' by hope jarren, a personal account of a geochemist's journey in academia and science, emphasizing the emotional depth and the importance of spending time with family, and ends with a russian poem recital and sponsor acknowledgements.", 'duration': 512.117, 'highlights': ["The book 'Lab Girl' by Hope Jarren is an incredibly personal account of a geochemist's journey in academia and science, narrated by the author, and provides a deep emotional connection for the listener. Emphasizes the emotional depth and personal impact.", "The audiobook 'Lab Girl' provides insights into academia, science, and research, making it a must-listen for anyone interested in these topics. Emphasizes the educational value of the audiobook.", 'The importance of spending time with family is highlighted as a personal resolution, reflecting on the distractions of academic life and the realization of missing family time. Emphasizes the impact of academic distractions and the value of family time.', 'The chapter ends with the recital of a Russian poem and acknowledgements to the podcast sponsors, emphasizing the cultural exchange and sponsor appreciation. Emphasizes the cultural exchange and sponsor acknowledgements.']}], 'duration': 2324.14, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/I51DuprOb0o/pics/I51DuprOb0o5623379.jpg', 'highlights': ['AlphaFold2 represents another level of complexity and a significant jump in complexity.', 'Machine learning can be used to forecast potential mutations in influenza strains and aid in vaccine development and antiviral drug development.', 'The rapid advancement in scientific research has led to a much quicker understanding of the structural characterization of the virus, with the time taken reducing from years to months, and unprecedented levels of virus sequencing allowing for precise tracing of its evolution.', "Bulgakov's Master and Margarita: Described as a powerful book that captures Russian culture, it features romance empowered by magic, wit, humor, pain, and love, impacting the reader deeply.", "The book 'Lab Girl' by Hope Jarren is an incredibly personal account of a geochemist's journey in academia and science, narrated by the author, and provides a deep emotional connection for the listener.", 'The importance of spending time with family is highlighted as a personal resolution, reflecting on the distractions of academic life and the realization of missing family time.']}], 'highlights': ['Dmitry Korkin specializes in bioinformatics of complex disease, computational genomics, systems biology, and biomedical data analytics.', 'Recent breakthrough in cryo-electron microscopy has allowed for the 3D shapes of much larger molecular complexes to be obtained.', "The spike protein's primary function is to attach to the human ACE2 receptor, initiating the process of encapsulation, with recent mutations allowing for more attachment opportunities.", 'The COVID-19 virus is evolutionary more stable compared to the spike protein, potentially impacting its mutational behavior.', 'The Drake equation estimates the number of alien civilizations in the galaxy based on various factors.', "AlphaFold 2's accomplishment in solving protein folding is considered one of the most exciting events of 2020, demonstrating a significant advancement in the field of bioinformatics.", 'Advancements in machine learning surpassing conventional biophysics methods', 'AlphaFold2 represents another level of complexity and a significant jump in complexity.', 'Machine learning can be used to forecast potential mutations in influenza strains and aid in vaccine development and antiviral drug development.', 'The rapid advancement in scientific research has led to a much quicker understanding of the structural characterization of the virus, with the time taken reducing from years to months, and unprecedented levels of virus sequencing allowing for precise tracing of its evolution.']}