title
Jeffrey Shainline: Neuromorphic Computing and Optoelectronic Intelligence | Lex Fridman Podcast #225
description
Jeffrey Shainline is a physicist at NIST. Please support this podcast by checking out our sponsors:
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Note: Opinions expressed by Jeff do not represent NIST.
EPISODE LINKS:
Jeff's Website: http://www.shainline.net
Jeff's Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=rnHpY3YAAAAJ
Jeff's NIST Page: https://www.nist.gov/people/jeff-shainline
PODCAST INFO:
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Apple Podcasts: https://apple.co/2lwqZIr
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Full episodes playlist: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLrAXtmErZgOdP_8GztsuKi9nrraNbKKp4
Clips playlist: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLrAXtmErZgOeciFP3CBCIEElOJeitOr41
OUTLINE:
0:00 - Introduction
0:44 - How are processors made?
20:02 - Are engineers or physicists more important
22:31 - Super-conductivity
38:18 - Computation
42:55 - Computation vs communication
46:36 - Electrons for computation and light for communication
57:19 - Neuromorphic computing
1:22:11 - What is NIST?
1:25:28 - Implementing super-conductivity
1:33:08 - The future of neuromorphic computing
1:52:41 - Loop neurons
1:58:57 - Machine learning
2:13:23 - Cosmological evolution
2:20:32 - Cosmological natural selection
2:37:53 - Life in the universe
2:45:40 - The rare Earth hypothesis
SOCIAL:
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detail
{'title': 'Jeffrey Shainline: Neuromorphic Computing and Optoelectronic Intelligence | Lex Fridman Podcast #225', 'heatmap': [{'end': 5197.349, 'start': 5088.092, 'weight': 1}], 'summary': "Jeff shainline, a scientist at nist, discusses optoelectronic intelligence, neuromorphic computing, and superconducting electronics, delving into semiconductor technology advancements, superconducting computing, interdisciplinary integration in neuroscience and hardware, advancements in neural hardware, tesla's ml hardware, and the role of technology in understanding the universe.", 'chapters': [{'end': 51.311, 'segs': [{'end': 51.311, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 0.049, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 7.795, 'text': 'The following is a conversation with Jeff Shainlein, a scientist at NIST interested in optoelectronic intelligence.', 'start': 0.049, 'duration': 7.746}, {'end': 13.62, 'text': 'We have a deep technical dive into computing hardware that will make Jim Keller proud.', 'start': 8.496, 'duration': 5.124}, {'end': 23.548, 'text': 'I urge you to hop on to this rollercoaster ride through neuromorphic computing and superconducting electronics and hold on for dear life.', 'start': 14.201, 'duration': 9.347}, {'end': 32.073, 'text': 'Jeff is a great communicator of technical information, and so it was truly a pleasure to talk to him about some physics and engineering.', 'start': 24.389, 'duration': 7.684}, {'end': 36.476, 'text': 'To support this podcast, please check out our sponsors in the description.', 'start': 33.174, 'duration': 3.302}, {'end': 43.08, 'text': 'This is the Lex Friedman Podcast, and here is my conversation with Jeff Schoenlein.', 'start': 37.517, 'duration': 5.563}, {'end': 51.311, 'text': 'I got a chance to read a fascinating paper you authored called Optoelectronic Intelligence.', 'start': 44.421, 'duration': 6.89}], 'summary': 'Jeff shainlein, nist scientist, discusses optoelectronic intelligence in a fascinating paper.', 'duration': 51.262, 'max_score': 0.049, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq449.jpg'}], 'start': 0.049, 'title': 'Optoelectronic intelligence', 'summary': 'Provides insights from a conversation with jeff shainlein, a scientist at nist, on optoelectronic intelligence, focusing on computing hardware like neuromorphic computing and superconducting electronics.', 'chapters': [{'end': 51.311, 'start': 0.049, 'title': 'Optoelectronic intelligence', 'summary': 'Delves into a conversation with jeff shainlein, a scientist at nist interested in optoelectronic intelligence, providing a deep technical dive into computing hardware, including neuromorphic computing and superconducting electronics.', 'duration': 51.262, 'highlights': ['Jeff Shainlein, a scientist at NIST, is discussed, and his interest in optoelectronic intelligence is highlighted.', 'The conversation provides a deep technical dive into computing hardware, including neuromorphic computing and superconducting electronics.', 'The podcast is hosted by Lex Friedman, and it features a conversation with Jeff Shainlein about optoelectronic intelligence.', "The paper 'Optoelectronic Intelligence' authored by Jeff Shainlein is mentioned."]}], 'duration': 51.262, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq449.jpg', 'highlights': ['The conversation provides a deep technical dive into computing hardware, including neuromorphic computing and superconducting electronics.', 'The podcast is hosted by Lex Friedman, and it features a conversation with Jeff Shainlein about optoelectronic intelligence.', 'Jeff Shainlein, a scientist at NIST, is discussed, and his interest in optoelectronic intelligence is highlighted.', "The paper 'Optoelectronic Intelligence' authored by Jeff Shainlein is mentioned."]}, {'end': 662.416, 'segs': [{'end': 102.177, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 52.092, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 56.938, 'text': 'So maybe we can start by talking about this paper and start with the basic questions.', 'start': 52.092, 'duration': 4.846}, {'end': 60.69, 'text': 'What is optoelectronic intelligence? Yeah.', 'start': 57.159, 'duration': 3.531}, {'end': 61.871, 'text': 'So, in that paper,', 'start': 60.75, 'duration': 1.121}, {'end': 76.823, 'text': 'the concept I was trying to describe is sort of an architecture for building brain inspired computing that leverages light for communication in conjunction with electronic circuits for computation.', 'start': 61.871, 'duration': 14.952}, {'end': 85.782, 'text': "In that particular paper, a lot of the work we're doing right now in our project at NIST is focused on superconducting electronics for computation.", 'start': 77.734, 'duration': 8.048}, {'end': 94.411, 'text': "I'll go into why that is, but that might make a little more sense in context if we first describe what that is,", 'start': 85.802, 'duration': 8.609}, {'end': 97.134, 'text': 'in contrast to which is semiconducting electronics.', 'start': 94.411, 'duration': 2.723}, {'end': 102.177, 'text': 'So is it worth taking a couple minutes to describe semiconducting electronics?', 'start': 97.954, 'duration': 4.223}], 'summary': 'Paper discusses architecture for brain-inspired computing using light and superconducting electronics for computation at nist.', 'duration': 50.085, 'max_score': 52.092, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq452092.jpg'}, {'end': 178.236, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 153.095, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 160.56, 'text': 'So you apply voltages, electrons move around, those can be measured as currents, and you can represent information in that way.', 'start': 153.095, 'duration': 7.465}, {'end': 166.785, 'text': 'So semiconductors are special in the sense that they are really malleable.', 'start': 161.001, 'duration': 5.784}, {'end': 176.034, 'text': 'So if you have a semiconductor material, it you can change the number of free electrons that can move around by putting different elements,', 'start': 166.965, 'duration': 9.069}, {'end': 178.236, 'text': 'different atoms, in lattice sites.', 'start': 176.034, 'duration': 2.202}], 'summary': 'Semiconductors allow malleable representation of information through electrons and currents.', 'duration': 25.141, 'max_score': 153.095, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4153095.jpg'}, {'end': 330.819, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 304.525, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 310.849, 'text': 'Well, at the scale of the silicon lattice, the distance between two atoms there is half a nanometer.', 'start': 304.525, 'duration': 6.324}, {'end': 316.512, 'text': 'So people often like to compare these things to the width of a human hair.', 'start': 310.949, 'duration': 5.563}, {'end': 323.615, 'text': "I think it's some six orders of magnitude smaller than the width of a human hair, something on that order.", 'start': 316.572, 'duration': 7.043}, {'end': 330.819, 'text': "So remarkably small, we're talking about individual atoms here and electrons are of that length scale when they're in that environment.", 'start': 324.536, 'duration': 6.283}], 'summary': 'Silicon lattice distance: 0.5nm, 6 orders smaller than human hair width.', 'duration': 26.294, 'max_score': 304.525, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4304525.jpg'}, {'end': 397.083, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 367.955, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 374.739, 'text': 'that feature size, ever smaller, ever smaller, at a really remarkable pace.', 'start': 367.955, 'duration': 6.784}, {'end': 383.681, 'text': 'I mean, that feature size has decreased consistently every couple of years since the 1960s.', 'start': 374.819, 'duration': 8.862}, {'end': 387.001, 'text': 'And that was what Moore predicted in the 1960s.', 'start': 383.741, 'duration': 3.26}, {'end': 390.742, 'text': "He thought it would continue for at least two more decades, and it's been much longer than that.", 'start': 387.161, 'duration': 3.581}, {'end': 397.083, 'text': "And so that is why we've been able to fit ever more devices, ever more transistors,", 'start': 390.822, 'duration': 6.261}], 'summary': 'Feature size has consistently decreased every couple of years since the 1960s, as predicted by moore, enabling the fitting of more transistors.', 'duration': 29.128, 'max_score': 367.955, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4367955.jpg'}, {'end': 529.104, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 508.239, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 519.041, 'text': 'You start with a pristine silicon crystal and then, using photolithography, which is a technique where you can pattern different shapes using light,', 'start': 508.239, 'duration': 10.802}, {'end': 529.104, 'text': "you can define which regions of space you're going to implant with different species of ions that are going to change the local electrical properties right there.", 'start': 519.041, 'duration': 10.063}], 'summary': 'Using photolithography, patterns are defined on silicon crystals to implant ions, altering local electrical properties.', 'duration': 20.865, 'max_score': 508.239, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4508239.jpg'}], 'start': 52.092, 'title': 'Optoelectronic intelligence and superconducting electronics', 'summary': 'Covers the concept of optoelectronic intelligence and its use in brain-inspired computing, as well as the focus on superconducting electronics, contrasting it with semiconducting electronics and discussing the malleability of semiconductor materials. it also discusses the scaling in silicon microelectronics, including the fundamental principles of digital electronic circuits, the impact of scaling on performance improvement, and the manufacturing scalability of silicon microelectronics.', 'chapters': [{'end': 216.602, 'start': 52.092, 'title': 'Optoelectronic intelligence and superconducting electronics', 'summary': 'Discusses the concept of optoelectronic intelligence for brain-inspired computing leveraging light for communication, alongside the focus on superconducting electronics for computation, contrasting it with semiconducting electronics and the malleability of semiconductor materials.', 'duration': 164.51, 'highlights': ['Optoelectronic intelligence involves leveraging light for communication in brain-inspired computing The concept described in the paper involves an architecture for building brain-inspired computing that leverages light for communication in conjunction with electronic circuits for computation.', 'Focus on superconducting electronics for computation at NIST A lot of the work at NIST is focused on superconducting electronics for computation.', 'Contrasting superconducting electronics with semiconducting electronics The discussion contrasts superconducting electronics with semiconducting electronics, highlighting the malleability of semiconductor materials and how different elements can change the number of free electrons.', 'Semiconductor materials are malleable and can be modified by adding different elements Semiconductor materials, such as silicon, can have their number of free electrons changed by adding different atoms in lattice sites, which allows for the representation of information through electrical currents.', 'Description of semiconductor materials and lattice sites Semiconductor materials are described as crystals with atoms at periodic lattice sites, with the ability to intentionally replace atoms to change the number of free electrons in specific regions.']}, {'end': 662.416, 'start': 217.223, 'title': 'Scaling in silicon microelectronics', 'summary': 'Discusses the fundamental principles of digital electronic circuits, the scale of silicon lattice, the impact of scaling on performance improvement, and the manufacturing scalability of silicon microelectronics.', 'duration': 445.193, 'highlights': ['The feature size of silicon transistors has consistently decreased every couple of years since the 1960s, enabling the fitting of more devices and transistors on the same chip, resulting in improved computational power and energy efficiency. Since the 1960s, the feature size of silicon transistors has consistently decreased, allowing for the fitting of more devices and transistors on the same chip, resulting in improved computational power and energy efficiency.', 'The scale of the silicon lattice is at the distance of half a nanometer between two atoms, making it six orders of magnitude smaller than the width of a human hair, enabling the mass manufacture of gates and transistors. The scale of the silicon lattice is at the distance of half a nanometer between two atoms, making it six orders of magnitude smaller than the width of a human hair, enabling the mass manufacture of gates and transistors.', 'The manufacturing scalability of silicon microelectronics, enabled by physics, involves techniques such as ion implantation and photolithography, allowing for the production of chips on ever larger wafers with streamlined processes. The manufacturing scalability of silicon microelectronics, enabled by physics, involves techniques such as ion implantation and photolithography, allowing for the production of chips on ever larger wafers with streamlined processes.']}], 'duration': 610.324, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq452092.jpg', 'highlights': ['Optoelectronic intelligence leverages light for communication in brain-inspired computing', 'Focus on superconducting electronics for computation at NIST', 'Semiconductor materials are malleable and can be modified by adding different elements', 'The feature size of silicon transistors has consistently decreased since the 1960s', 'The scale of the silicon lattice is six orders of magnitude smaller than the width of a human hair', 'Manufacturing scalability of silicon microelectronics involves techniques such as ion implantation and photolithography']}, {'end': 1815.97, 'segs': [{'end': 712.46, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 688.806, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 695.47, 'text': "It has essentially ideal properties for making a specific kind of transistor that's extraordinarily useful.", 'start': 688.806, 'duration': 6.664}, {'end': 700.613, 'text': 'I mentioned that when you make a transistor,', 'start': 696.091, 'duration': 4.522}, {'end': 707.297, 'text': 'you have this gate contact that sits on top of the conduction channel and depending on the voltage you apply there,', 'start': 700.613, 'duration': 6.684}, {'end': 712.46, 'text': 'you pull more carriers into the conduction channel or push them away, so it becomes more or less conductive.', 'start': 707.297, 'duration': 5.163}], 'summary': 'Ideal properties for making a highly useful transistor.', 'duration': 23.654, 'max_score': 688.806, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4688806.jpg'}, {'end': 778.509, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 753.535, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 763.642, 'text': 'There are essentially no other materials on the entire periodic table that have as good of a gate insulator as that silicon dioxide.', 'start': 753.535, 'duration': 10.107}, {'end': 768.705, 'text': 'And that has to do with nothing but the physics of the interaction between silicon and oxygen.', 'start': 763.662, 'duration': 5.043}, {'end': 778.509, 'text': "And if it wasn't that way, transistors could not They could not perform in nearly the degree of capability that they have.", 'start': 769.366, 'duration': 9.143}], 'summary': 'Silicon dioxide is the best gate insulator, critical for transistor performance.', 'duration': 24.974, 'max_score': 753.535, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4753535.jpg'}, {'end': 901.94, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 873.372, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 878.994, 'text': "And amazingly, like you said, with a wavelength at like 100 nanometers or something like that, you're still able to achieve,", 'start': 873.372, 'duration': 5.622}, {'end': 883.255, 'text': 'on this polymer precision of whatever we said, seven nanometers.', 'start': 878.994, 'duration': 4.261}, {'end': 888.156, 'text': "I think I've heard like four nanometers being talked about, something like that.", 'start': 883.535, 'duration': 4.621}, {'end': 892.177, 'text': "If we could just pause on this and we'll return to superconductivity.", 'start': 888.556, 'duration': 3.621}, {'end': 901.94, 'text': 'but in this whole journey, from a history perspective, what do you think is the most beautiful at the intersection of engineering and physics to you,', 'start': 892.177, 'duration': 9.763}], 'summary': 'Achieving precision of seven nanometers on a 100 nanometer wavelength in polymer.', 'duration': 28.568, 'max_score': 873.372, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4873372.jpg'}, {'end': 1202.595, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1174.631, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 1181.137, 'text': "And it's kind of amazing that everything we've been talking about, the errors as we scale down seems to be extremely low.", 'start': 1174.631, 'duration': 6.506}, {'end': 1187.642, 'text': "And like all of our computation is based on the assumption that it's extremely low.", 'start': 1182.237, 'duration': 5.405}, {'end': 1194.308, 'text': 'So, as opposed to our biological computation,', 'start': 1187.902, 'duration': 6.406}, {'end': 1201.574, 'text': 'our brain is like the assumption is stuff is gonna fail all over the place and we somehow have to still be robust to that.', 'start': 1194.308, 'duration': 7.266}, {'end': 1202.595, 'text': "That's exactly right.", 'start': 1201.774, 'duration': 0.821}], 'summary': 'Errors in scaling down are extremely low compared to biological computation.', 'duration': 27.964, 'max_score': 1174.631, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq41174631.jpg'}, {'end': 1296.382, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1246.795, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 1253.821, 'text': "I don't see how you would have any of what we consider the great accomplishments of society without both.", 'start': 1246.795, 'duration': 7.026}, {'end': 1255.743, 'text': 'You absolutely need both of those things.', 'start': 1254.221, 'duration': 1.522}, {'end': 1263.129, 'text': 'Physics tends to play a key role earlier in the development and then engineering optimization, these things take over.', 'start': 1256.043, 'duration': 7.086}, {'end': 1270.877, 'text': 'The invention of the transistor, or actually, even before that,', 'start': 1267.413, 'duration': 3.464}, {'end': 1274.84, 'text': 'the understanding of semiconductor physics that allowed the invention of the transistor.', 'start': 1270.877, 'duration': 3.963}, {'end': 1275.581, 'text': "that's all physics.", 'start': 1274.84, 'duration': 0.741}, {'end': 1279.405, 'text': "So if you didn't have that physics, you don't even get to get on the field.", 'start': 1275.601, 'duration': 3.804}, {'end': 1288.454, 'text': 'But once you have understood and demonstrated that this is in principle possible, more so as engineering,', 'start': 1280.426, 'duration': 8.028}, {'end': 1296.382, 'text': 'why we have computers more powerful than old supercomputers in each of our phones.', 'start': 1288.454, 'duration': 7.928}], 'summary': 'Physics and engineering are both essential for societal progress, with physics playing a key role in early development and engineering leading to advancements like powerful smartphones.', 'duration': 49.587, 'max_score': 1246.795, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq41246795.jpg'}, {'end': 1437.075, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1410.257, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 1415.822, 'text': "And what I'm talking about there for essentially all of our conversation.", 'start': 1410.257, 'duration': 5.565}, {'end': 1424.351, 'text': "I'm going to be talking about conventional superconductors, sometimes called low TC superconductors, low critical temperature superconductors.", 'start': 1415.822, 'duration': 8.529}, {'end': 1431.934, 'text': 'And so those materials have to be at a temperature around, say, around 4 Kelvin.', 'start': 1425.152, 'duration': 6.782}, {'end': 1437.075, 'text': 'I mean their critical temperature might be 10 Kelvin, something like that, but you want to operate them at around 4 Kelvin,', 'start': 1431.954, 'duration': 5.121}], 'summary': 'Discussing conventional superconductors with critical temperature around 10 kelvin, operating temperature at 4 kelvin.', 'duration': 26.818, 'max_score': 1410.257, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq41410257.jpg'}], 'start': 662.416, 'title': 'Semiconductor technology advancements', 'summary': "Delves into semiconductor technology advancements, emphasizing silicon's unique properties, the role of silicon dioxide in gate insulators, and the interdependence of physics and engineering in innovation, highlighting the pivotal role of both in developing groundbreaking technologies.", 'chapters': [{'end': 732.027, 'start': 662.416, 'title': 'Advancements in semiconductor technology', 'summary': 'Discusses the advancements in semiconductor technology, focusing on the enabling physics and unique properties of silicon, such as its ideal properties for making transistors and the gradual decrease in gate insulator thickness to maintain current voltage characteristics.', 'duration': 69.611, 'highlights': ["The unique properties of silicon make it ideal for making a specific kind of transistor that's extraordinarily useful.", 'Gradually decreasing the thickness of the gate insulator enables the use of a roughly similar voltage while maintaining the same current voltage characteristics.', 'At the scale of seven nanometers, electrons can exist without interfering with each other, allowing the creation of gates.']}, {'end': 1202.595, 'start': 732.128, 'title': 'Silicon & photolithography in microelectronics', 'summary': 'Discusses the pivotal role of silicon dioxide in gate insulators, the advantages of silicon as a semiconductor, and the historical significance of silicon in microelectronics, including its band gap properties and the reasons for its dominance. it also touches upon the precision of photolithography and the low error rates in quantum computing.', 'duration': 470.467, 'highlights': ['The pivotal role of silicon dioxide in gate insulators is emphasized, as it has no equal on the periodic table and enables transistors to perform with high capability. No other materials on the entire periodic table have as good of a gate insulator as silicon dioxide.', "The historical significance of silicon in microelectronics is highlighted, particularly its dominance over other semiconductors due to an assemblage of qualities, including the excellent gate oxide for making high-performance transistors and its optimal band gap properties for operation in ambient environments. Silicon's band gap of 1.1 electron volts allows for exponential decrease in errors with voltage, making it ideal for computational operations in ambient conditions.", 'The precision of photolithography is mentioned, with the ability to achieve precision of seven nanometers or even four nanometers using light sources with wavelengths of around 100 nanometers. The precision of photolithography allows for achieving a precision of seven nanometers or even four nanometers using light sources with wavelengths of around 100 nanometers.', 'The low error rates in quantum computing are highlighted, indicating the extremely low error rates in quantum computing and the contrast with the assumption of high failure rates in biological computation. The low error rates in quantum computing are emphasized, contrasting with the assumption of high failure rates in biological computation.']}, {'end': 1815.97, 'start': 1203.075, 'title': 'Physics vs. engineering in innovation', 'summary': 'Discusses the interdependence of physics and engineering in innovation, highlighting the crucial role of both in developing groundbreaking technologies, such as the invention of the transistor and the advancements in superconductivity, emphasizing the integration of physics, material science, and engineering in technological advancements.', 'duration': 612.895, 'highlights': ['The interdependence of physics and engineering in innovation The chapter emphasizes the essential role of both physics and engineering in developing groundbreaking technologies, highlighting their interdependence and the necessity of both disciplines for societal accomplishments.', 'The invention of the transistor as a result of physics and engineering The discussion showcases the invention of the transistor as an example of the interplay between physics and engineering, emphasizing the role of physics in understanding semiconductor properties and the subsequent engineering advancements in creating more powerful computers.', 'The significance of superconductivity and its relation to physics and engineering The chapter delves into the importance of superconductivity, emphasizing its connection to both physics and engineering, highlighting the collaborative role of material science, low-temperature physics, and engineering in understanding and utilizing superconducting materials for technological advancements.']}], 'duration': 1153.554, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq4662416.jpg', 'highlights': ["Silicon's unique properties make it ideal for making a specific kind of transistor.", 'Silicon dioxide has no equal on the periodic table and enables transistors to perform with high capability.', 'The precision of photolithography allows for achieving a precision of seven nanometers or even four nanometers using light sources with wavelengths of around 100 nanometers.', 'The low error rates in quantum computing are highlighted, indicating the extremely low error rates in quantum computing and the contrast with the assumption of high failure rates in biological computation.', 'The chapter emphasizes the essential role of both physics and engineering in developing groundbreaking technologies, highlighting their interdependence and the necessity of both disciplines for societal accomplishments.', 'The discussion showcases the invention of the transistor as an example of the interplay between physics and engineering, emphasizing the role of physics in understanding semiconductor properties and the subsequent engineering advancements in creating more powerful computers.', 'The chapter delves into the importance of superconductivity, emphasizing its connection to both physics and engineering, highlighting the collaborative role of material science, low-temperature physics, and engineering in understanding and utilizing superconducting materials for technological advancements.']}, {'end': 4113.738, 'segs': [{'end': 1858.723, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 1832.74, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 1843.35, 'text': "so One of the reasons why Joseph's injunctions are appealing is because their signals can propagate quite fast and they can also switch very fast.", 'start': 1832.74, 'duration': 10.61}, {'end': 1848.776, 'text': 'What I mean by switch is perform that operation that I described where you add current to the loop.', 'start': 1843.391, 'duration': 5.385}, {'end': 1850.818, 'text': 'That can happen within..', 'start': 1849.516, 'duration': 1.302}, {'end': 1853.88, 'text': 'a few tens of picoseconds.', 'start': 1852.339, 'duration': 1.541}, {'end': 1858.723, 'text': 'So you can get you can get devices that operate in the hundreds of gigahertz range.', 'start': 1853.94, 'duration': 4.783}], 'summary': "Joseph's injunctions can propagate and switch rapidly, operating in the hundreds of gigahertz range.", 'duration': 25.983, 'max_score': 1832.74, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq41832740.jpg'}, {'end': 2089.221, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2066.13, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 2073.873, 'text': 'So these are some high-performance supercomputers out in Tennessee, and those are filling entire rooms the size of warehouses, you know.', 'start': 2066.13, 'duration': 7.743}, {'end': 2078.315, 'text': "So once you're at that level, OK, there you're already putting a lot of power into cooling.", 'start': 2073.994, 'duration': 4.321}, {'end': 2083.118, 'text': 'You need cooling is part of your engineering task that you have to deal with.', 'start': 2078.356, 'duration': 4.762}, {'end': 2089.221, 'text': "So there it's not entirely obvious that cooling to four Kelvin is out of the question.", 'start': 2083.658, 'duration': 5.563}], 'summary': 'High-performance supercomputers in tennessee require powerful cooling, possibly to four kelvin.', 'duration': 23.091, 'max_score': 2066.13, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq42066130.jpg'}, {'end': 2455.04, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2427.722, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 2431.485, 'text': "In the brain, You're always drawing information from different places.", 'start': 2427.722, 'duration': 3.763}, {'end': 2433.466, 'text': "It's much more network based computing.", 'start': 2431.545, 'duration': 1.921}, {'end': 2435.587, 'text': "Neurons don't wait for their turn.", 'start': 2433.826, 'duration': 1.761}, {'end': 2437.088, 'text': "They fire when they're ready to fire.", 'start': 2435.647, 'duration': 1.441}, {'end': 2439.07, 'text': "And so it's asynchronous.", 'start': 2437.188, 'duration': 1.882}, {'end': 2444.273, 'text': "So one of the other things about a digital system is you're performing these operations on a clock.", 'start': 2439.27, 'duration': 5.003}, {'end': 2446.654, 'text': "And that's a crucial aspect of it.", 'start': 2444.513, 'duration': 2.141}, {'end': 2448.415, 'text': 'Get rid of a clock in a digital system.', 'start': 2446.714, 'duration': 1.701}, {'end': 2450.077, 'text': 'Nothing makes sense anymore.', 'start': 2448.936, 'duration': 1.141}, {'end': 2451.537, 'text': 'The brain has no clock.', 'start': 2450.477, 'duration': 1.06}, {'end': 2455.04, 'text': 'It builds its own time scales based on its internal activity.', 'start': 2451.798, 'duration': 3.242}], 'summary': 'The brain operates asynchronously without a clock, unlike digital systems which rely on clock-based operations.', 'duration': 27.318, 'max_score': 2427.722, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq42427722.jpg'}, {'end': 2600.144, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 2574.785, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 2587.354, 'text': 'So in this paper that we mentioned, Optoelectronic Intelligence, you say electrons excel at computation while light is excellent for communication.', 'start': 2574.785, 'duration': 12.569}, {'end': 2593.219, 'text': 'Maybe you can linger and say in this context what do you mean by computation and communication?', 'start': 2588.515, 'duration': 4.704}, {'end': 2595.621, 'text': 'What are electrons??', 'start': 2594.099, 'duration': 1.522}, {'end': 2596.861, 'text': 'What is light?', 'start': 2596.121, 'duration': 0.74}, {'end': 2600.144, 'text': 'And why do they excel at those two tasks?', 'start': 2597.482, 'duration': 2.662}], 'summary': 'Electrons excel at computation, while light is excellent for communication.', 'duration': 25.359, 'max_score': 2574.785, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq42574785.jpg'}, {'end': 3085.078, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3056.811, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 3062.014, 'text': "You can't do that if you're trying to drive electrons from here to 10,000 different places.", 'start': 3056.811, 'duration': 5.203}, {'end': 3064.635, 'text': 'The brain does it in a slightly different way, which we can discuss.', 'start': 3062.074, 'duration': 2.561}, {'end': 3072.052, 'text': 'how can light achieve the 10,000 connections and why is it better in terms of, like the energy use,', 'start': 3064.949, 'duration': 7.103}, {'end': 3075.253, 'text': 'required to use light for the communication of the 10,000 connections?', 'start': 3072.052, 'duration': 3.201}, {'end': 3075.713, 'text': 'Right, right.', 'start': 3075.333, 'duration': 0.38}, {'end': 3079.335, 'text': "So now instead of trying to send electrons from me to you, I'm trying to send photons.", 'start': 3075.733, 'duration': 3.602}, {'end': 3085.078, 'text': "So I can make what's called a wave guide, which is just, a simple piece of material.", 'start': 3079.375, 'duration': 5.703}], 'summary': 'Discussing the efficiency of light in achieving 10,000 connections and its energy use.', 'duration': 28.267, 'max_score': 3056.811, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq43056811.jpg'}, {'end': 3174.089, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3143.603, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 3150.729, 'text': "It's a deep and important question that basically defines a lot of the work that goes on in our group at NIST.", 'start': 3143.603, 'duration': 7.126}, {'end': 3158.336, 'text': 'One of my group leaders, Sewu Nam, has built his career around these superconducting single photon detectors.', 'start': 3151.49, 'duration': 6.846}, {'end': 3166.063, 'text': "So if you're going to try to reach a lower limit and detect just one particle of light superconductors,", 'start': 3158.476, 'duration': 7.587}, {'end': 3174.089, 'text': 'come back into our conversation and just picture a simple device where you have current flowing through a superconducting wire and.', 'start': 3166.063, 'duration': 8.026}], 'summary': 'Nist research focuses on superconducting single photon detectors for detecting one particle of light.', 'duration': 30.486, 'max_score': 3143.603, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq43143603.jpg'}, {'end': 3749.791, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3724.1, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 3729.122, 'text': 'the part of the brain that we think is most responsible for high level reasoning and things like that.', 'start': 3724.1, 'duration': 5.022}, {'end': 3731.303, 'text': 'those neurons make thousands of connections.', 'start': 3729.122, 'duration': 2.181}, {'end': 3734.705, 'text': 'So you have this network that is highly interconnected.', 'start': 3731.443, 'duration': 3.262}, {'end': 3749.791, 'text': "And I think it's safe to say that one of the primary reasons that they make so many different connections is that allows information to be communicated very rapidly from any spot in the network to any other spot in the network.", 'start': 3735.695, 'duration': 14.096}], 'summary': "The brain's interconnected neurons facilitate rapid communication, enabling high-level reasoning.", 'duration': 25.691, 'max_score': 3724.1, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq43724100.jpg'}, {'end': 3778.223, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3753.996, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 3763.195, 'text': 'You can quantify this in terms of, concepts that are related to fractals and scale invariance, which I think is a very beautiful concept.', 'start': 3753.996, 'duration': 9.199}, {'end': 3770.799, 'text': "So what I mean by that is no matter what spatial scale you're looking at in the brain,", 'start': 3763.315, 'duration': 7.484}, {'end': 3774.941, 'text': 'within certain bounds you see the same general statistical pattern.', 'start': 3770.799, 'duration': 4.142}, {'end': 3778.223, 'text': 'So if I draw a box around some region of my cortex,', 'start': 3774.981, 'duration': 3.242}], 'summary': 'Brain exhibits scale invariance with consistent statistical patterns across spatial scales.', 'duration': 24.227, 'max_score': 3753.996, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq43753996.jpg'}, {'end': 3963.954, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 3941.345, 'weight': 8, 'content': [{'end': 3951.449, 'text': "pulsing, producing spikes at a certain frequency is again a power law, which means there's no defined scale of the temporal activity in the brain.", 'start': 3941.345, 'duration': 10.104}, {'end': 3956.031, 'text': 'At what speed do your thoughts occur?', 'start': 3952.169, 'duration': 3.862}, {'end': 3957.751, 'text': "Well, there's a fastest speed.", 'start': 3956.071, 'duration': 1.68}, {'end': 3963.954, 'text': "they can occur, and that is limited by communication and other things, but there's not a characteristic scale.", 'start': 3957.751, 'duration': 6.203}], 'summary': 'Brain activity occurs at a power law frequency with no defined scale. thoughts have a fastest speed limited by communication.', 'duration': 22.609, 'max_score': 3941.345, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq43941345.jpg'}, {'end': 4069.422, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4045.323, 'weight': 9, 'content': [{'end': 4051.867, 'text': "so there's this concept of information integration where most neurons are, Neurons are specialized.", 'start': 4045.323, 'duration': 6.544}, {'end': 4059.874, 'text': "Any given neuron or any cluster of neuron has its specific purpose, but they're also very much integrated.", 'start': 4052.027, 'duration': 7.847}, {'end': 4063.196, 'text': 'So you have neurons that specialize but share their information.', 'start': 4059.914, 'duration': 3.282}, {'end': 4069.422, 'text': 'And so that happens through these fractal nested oscillations that occur across spatial and temporal scales.', 'start': 4063.737, 'duration': 5.685}], 'summary': 'Neurons integrate information via fractal nested oscillations.', 'duration': 24.099, 'max_score': 4045.323, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44045323.jpg'}], 'start': 1815.97, 'title': 'Superconducting computing and communication technologies', 'summary': "Discusses high-speed josephson junctions enabling signals to propagate at about a third of the speed of light, superconducting computing technology's limitations and potential applications, the historical momentum and challenges of superconducting logic, the distinction between computation and communication, and the development and applications of superconducting single photon detectors and principles of neuromorphic computing.", 'chapters': [{'end': 1881.421, 'start': 1815.97, 'title': 'High-speed josephson junctions', 'summary': 'Discusses the high-speed propagation of fluxons in josephson junctions, enabling signals to propagate at about a third of the speed of light and switch within a few tens of picoseconds, leading to devices operating in the hundreds of gigahertz range, a significant advancement compared to conventional processors.', 'duration': 65.451, 'highlights': ["Joseph's injunctions can propagate signals at about a third of the speed of light, enabling high-speed operations within a few tens of picoseconds, leading to devices operating in the hundreds of gigahertz range.", 'Conventional processors operate in the one to three gigahertz range, while overclocked systems may reach about four gigahertz, highlighting the significant advancement enabled by Josephson junctions.']}, {'end': 2089.221, 'start': 1882.001, 'title': 'Superconducting computing technology', 'summary': 'Discusses the challenges and limitations of superconducting computing technology, highlighting the physics of josephson junctions and the impracticality of cooling systems for consumer devices, while pointing out potential applications in large computing systems such as supercomputers.', 'duration': 207.22, 'highlights': ['The impracticality of cooling systems for consumer devices Liquid helium cooling systems required for superconducting materials operate at four Kelvin, making them expensive, inconvenient, and impractical for consumer electronics.', 'Physical limitations of Josephson circuits Josephson circuits are limited by fundamental physical reasons related to the interaction between the junction and the superconducting material, imposing constraints on scaling down to the densities achievable by silicon microelectronics.', 'Potential applications in large computing systems Superconducting computing technology may find applications in large systems such as supercomputers, where the impracticalities of cooling systems and power consumption are more manageable, as demonstrated by high-performance supercomputers like Titan and Summit, which require extensive power and cooling resources.']}, {'end': 2600.144, 'start': 2089.88, 'title': 'Superconductors vs. semiconductors for digital computation', 'summary': 'Discusses the historical momentum and challenges of superconducting logic, highlighting the limitations of superconductors in displacing silicon due to factors like cooling errors, scaling down to feature sizes, and overall system performance, despite the potential for speed and power consumption improvements. it also explores the distinctions between digital logic and analog computing, emphasizing the asynchronous and network-based nature of brain computation compared to the highly serial operations in digital systems.', 'duration': 510.264, 'highlights': ["Superconductors' limitations in displacing silicon Despite the potential for speed and power consumption improvements, superconductors face challenges such as cooling errors, scaling down to feature sizes, and overall system performance, making it difficult to displace silicon in digital computation.", 'Distinctions between digital logic and analog computing The discussion delves into the differences between digital logic, based on sequential operations and binary digits, and analog computing, highlighting the asynchronous and network-based nature of brain computation compared to the highly serial operations in digital systems.', "Characteristics of brain computation The brain's asynchronous and network-based computing, devoid of a clock, stands in contrast to the highly serial, clock-dependent operations of digital systems, emphasizing the complex, parallelized nature of brain processing."]}, {'end': 3143.563, 'start': 2600.763, 'title': 'Computation vs communication: electron vs light', 'summary': 'Explains the distinction between computation and communication, the role of electrons in computation, and the advantages of light for communication, emphasizing the impact of electron interaction and distance on communication.', 'duration': 542.8, 'highlights': ["Electrons are good for computation due to their strong interaction and spatial localization, whereas light is good for communication due to minimal interaction and lack of capacitive penalty, making it suitable for multiple connections without energy penalties. Electrons' strong interaction and spatial localization make them suitable for computation, while light's minimal interaction and lack of capacitive penalty make it ideal for communication, allowing for multiple connections without energy penalties.", 'The communication of 10,000 connections using light is more energy-efficient than using electrons due to the absence of capacitive penalty and wiring parasitics associated with light, making it suitable for multiple connections without energy penalties. Using light for communication of 10,000 connections is more energy-efficient than using electrons, as light lacks capacitive penalty and wiring parasitics, making it suitable for multiple connections without energy penalties.', 'The impact of distance and the number of connections on electron communication is significant, leading to energy penalties and inefficiencies, especially when trying to make numerous connections, such as in the human brain. The impact of distance and the number of connections on electron communication results in significant energy penalties and inefficiencies, especially when trying to make numerous connections, as in the human brain.']}, {'end': 3596.75, 'start': 3143.603, 'title': 'Superconducting single photon detectors', 'summary': 'Discusses the development and applications of superconducting single photon detectors, including their functioning, noise filtering properties, and their role in quantum computing and neuromorphic computing.', 'duration': 453.147, 'highlights': ['Superconducting single photon detectors enable the detection of a single particle of light, allowing for the understanding of quantum states of light and noise filtering properties.', 'The detectors are sensitive to the exact number of photons, which is useful for encoding information in quantum computing, especially in quantum states of light.', "Neuromorphic computing draws inspiration from the brain's information processing principles, ranging from more distributed parallel network architectures to performing operations analogous to those in the brain, leading to advancements in computing technologies."]}, {'end': 4113.738, 'start': 3597.291, 'title': 'Neuromorphic computing principles', 'summary': 'Delves into the first principles of brain-like computation and communication, emphasizing the network structure of the brain, spatial and temporal dynamics, such as fractal and scale invariance patterns, and the concept of information integration, which are essential for understanding intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing.', 'duration': 516.447, 'highlights': ['The network structure of the brain, with highly interconnected neurons making thousands of connections, allows rapid information communication across spatial scales. The highly interconnected network structure of the brain enables rapid information communication, facilitating high-level reasoning and information processing.', "The brain exhibits scale invariance and fractal dynamics, maintaining consistent statistical patterns across different spatial scales, which is crucial for information processing. The scale invariance and fractal dynamics of the brain's statistical patterns play a vital role in information processing, contributing to the understanding of intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing.", 'Temporal dynamics in the brain, characterized by power-law distributions, allow thoughts to occur on various temporal scales, from milliseconds to the lifetime of the organism, contributing to the understanding of intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing. The power-law distribution of temporal dynamics in the brain enables thoughts to occur on diverse temporal scales, essential for understanding intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing.', 'The concept of information integration, where neurons are specialized but share information through fractal nested oscillations across spatial and temporal scales, is fundamental to understanding intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing. The concept of information integration, facilitated by fractal nested oscillations, is crucial for understanding intelligence and communication, emphasizing the specialized yet integrated nature of neurons.']}], 'duration': 2297.768, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq41815970.jpg', 'highlights': ["Joseph's injunctions enable high-speed operations within a few tens of picoseconds, leading to devices operating in the hundreds of gigahertz range.", 'Superconducting computing technology may find applications in large systems such as supercomputers, where the impracticalities of cooling systems and power consumption are more manageable.', "The brain's asynchronous and network-based computing, devoid of a clock, stands in contrast to the highly serial, clock-dependent operations of digital systems, emphasizing the complex, parallelized nature of brain processing.", "Electrons' strong interaction and spatial localization make them suitable for computation, while light's minimal interaction and lack of capacitive penalty make it ideal for communication, allowing for multiple connections without energy penalties.", 'Using light for communication of 10,000 connections is more energy-efficient than using electrons, as light lacks capacitive penalty and wiring parasitics, making it suitable for multiple connections without energy penalties.', 'Superconducting single photon detectors enable the detection of a single particle of light, allowing for the understanding of quantum states of light and noise filtering properties.', 'The highly interconnected network structure of the brain enables rapid information communication, facilitating high-level reasoning and information processing.', "The scale invariance and fractal dynamics of the brain's statistical patterns play a vital role in information processing, contributing to the understanding of intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing.", 'The power-law distribution of temporal dynamics in the brain enables thoughts to occur on diverse temporal scales, essential for understanding intelligence and communication in neuromorphic computing.', 'The concept of information integration, facilitated by fractal nested oscillations, is crucial for understanding intelligence and communication, emphasizing the specialized yet integrated nature of neurons.']}, {'end': 4961.756, 'segs': [{'end': 4184.785, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4156.013, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 4162.837, 'text': "I think there's another element that I didn't really hit on that you also have to build into this, and those are architectural principles.", 'start': 4156.013, 'duration': 6.824}, {'end': 4167.319, 'text': 'They have to do with the hierarchical modular construction of the network.', 'start': 4162.897, 'duration': 4.422}, {'end': 4173.703, 'text': 'And without getting too lost in jargon, the main point that I think is relevant there.', 'start': 4167.439, 'duration': 6.264}, {'end': 4178.178, 'text': 'let me try and illustrate it with a cartoon picture of the architecture of the brain.', 'start': 4173.703, 'duration': 4.475}, {'end': 4184.785, 'text': 'So in the brain, you have the cortex, which is sort of this outer sheet.', 'start': 4178.218, 'duration': 6.567}], 'summary': 'Architectural principles in building network relate to hierarchical modular construction, illustrated with a cartoon picture of the brain.', 'duration': 28.772, 'max_score': 4156.013, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44156013.jpg'}, {'end': 4237.801, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4204.502, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 4208.284, 'text': "But you have another really crucial module that's called the hippocampus.", 'start': 4204.502, 'duration': 3.782}, {'end': 4211.406, 'text': 'And that network is structured entirely differently.', 'start': 4208.984, 'duration': 2.422}, {'end': 4215.548, 'text': 'First of all, this cortex that I described, 10 billion neurons in there.', 'start': 4211.466, 'duration': 4.082}, {'end': 4216.769, 'text': 'So numbers matter here.', 'start': 4215.588, 'duration': 1.181}, {'end': 4224.918, 'text': "And they're organized in that sort of power law distribution where the probability of making a connection drops off as a power law in space.", 'start': 4217.956, 'duration': 6.962}, {'end': 4237.801, 'text': "The hippocampus is another module that's important for understanding where you are, when you are, keeping track of your position in space and time.", 'start': 4225.258, 'duration': 12.543}], 'summary': 'The hippocampus has a different structure with 10 billion neurons, crucial for spatial and temporal awareness.', 'duration': 33.299, 'max_score': 4204.502, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44204502.jpg'}, {'end': 4306.118, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4273.436, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 4274.536, 'text': 'Cartoon picture of the brain.', 'start': 4273.436, 'duration': 1.1}, {'end': 4275.037, 'text': 'I got you.', 'start': 4274.736, 'duration': 0.301}, {'end': 4275.977, 'text': 'Yeah, something like that.', 'start': 4275.177, 'duration': 0.8}, {'end': 4286.965, 'text': 'So this thalamus is coordinating the activity between the neocortex and the hippocampus and making sure that they talk to each other at the right time and send messages that will be useful to one another.', 'start': 4276.017, 'duration': 10.948}, {'end': 4291.268, 'text': 'So this all taken together is called the thalamocortical complex.', 'start': 4287.325, 'duration': 3.943}, {'end': 4300.594, 'text': "And it seems like building something like that is going to be crucial to capturing the types of activity we're looking for,", 'start': 4292.188, 'duration': 8.406}, {'end': 4306.118, 'text': 'because those responsibilities, those separate modules, they do different things.', 'start': 4300.594, 'duration': 5.524}], 'summary': 'The thalamocortical complex coordinates neocortex and hippocampus activity for useful messaging.', 'duration': 32.682, 'max_score': 4273.436, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44273436.jpg'}, {'end': 4340.837, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4316.192, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 4324.181, 'text': 'By the way, I am able to achieve this state by watching simulations, visualizations of the thalamic cortical complex.', 'start': 4316.192, 'duration': 7.989}, {'end': 4330.628, 'text': "There's a few people I forget from where they've created these incredible visual illustrations of,", 'start': 4324.201, 'duration': 6.427}, {'end': 4334.732, 'text': 'like visual stimulation from the eye or something like that.', 'start': 4330.628, 'duration': 4.104}, {'end': 4338.236, 'text': 'In this image, like flowing through the brain.', 'start': 4335.733, 'duration': 2.503}, {'end': 4339.977, 'text': "Wow I haven't seen that.", 'start': 4338.596, 'duration': 1.381}, {'end': 4340.837, 'text': 'I got to check that out.', 'start': 4340.077, 'duration': 0.76}], 'summary': 'Achieving a state by watching thalamic cortical complex visualizations.', 'duration': 24.645, 'max_score': 4316.192, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44316192.jpg'}, {'end': 4532.265, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4500.614, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 4501.675, 'text': 'but crucial too,', 'start': 4500.614, 'duration': 1.061}, {'end': 4511.343, 'text': 'the ability to imprint those memories in your brain is the ability to change the strength of connection between one neuron and another,', 'start': 4502.395, 'duration': 8.948}, {'end': 4513.245, 'text': 'that synaptic connection between them.', 'start': 4511.343, 'duration': 1.902}, {'end': 4519.531, 'text': 'So synaptic weight update is a massive field of neuroscience and neuromorphic computing as well.', 'start': 4513.365, 'duration': 6.166}, {'end': 4525.918, 'text': 'So There are two poles on that spectrum.', 'start': 4519.651, 'duration': 6.267}, {'end': 4532.265, 'text': 'More in the language of machine learning, we would talk about supervised and unsupervised learning.', 'start': 4527.46, 'duration': 4.805}], 'summary': 'Imprinting memories can change synaptic connections, crucial in neuroscience and neuromorphic computing.', 'duration': 31.651, 'max_score': 4500.614, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44500614.jpg'}, {'end': 4633.88, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4609.593, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 4615.965, 'text': "What about the formation of something that's not often done in machine learning, the formation of new synaptic connections.", 'start': 4609.593, 'duration': 6.372}, {'end': 4626.458, 'text': "Right Again, not a neuroscientist here, but my reading of the literature is that that's particularly crucial in early stages of brain development,", 'start': 4616.374, 'duration': 10.084}, {'end': 4633.88, 'text': "where a newborn is born with tons of extra synaptic connections and it's actually pruned over time.", 'start': 4626.458, 'duration': 7.422}], 'summary': 'Formation of new synaptic connections crucial in early brain development, with newborns having many extra connections that are pruned over time.', 'duration': 24.287, 'max_score': 4609.593, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44609593.jpg'}, {'end': 4897.309, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 4867.445, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 4877.094, 'text': 'So you can communicate locally, you can communicate across much greater distances and do the same thing in space and do the same thing in time.', 'start': 4867.445, 'duration': 9.649}, {'end': 4883.739, 'text': 'Now, you have a chapter called Superconducting Hardware for Neuromorphic Computing.', 'start': 4878.075, 'duration': 5.664}, {'end': 4897.309, 'text': "So what are some ideas that integrate some of the things we've been talking about in terms of the first principles of neuromorphic computing and the ideas that you outline in Opto-Electronic Intelligence?", 'start': 4884.4, 'duration': 12.909}], 'summary': 'Neuromorphic computing enables communication across distances and in space and time.', 'duration': 29.864, 'max_score': 4867.445, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44867445.jpg'}], 'start': 4113.779, 'title': 'Neuromorphic hardware principles and superconducting hardware', 'summary': 'Discusses hardware and architectural principles for observing dynamical principles in neuromorphic machines, focusing on hierarchical modular construction, cortex, and hippocampus modules. it also explores thalamic cortical complex visualizations, memory storage mechanisms in neuromorphic computing, and integration of first principles in superconducting hardware.', 'chapters': [{'end': 4315.025, 'start': 4113.779, 'title': 'Neuromorphic hardware principles', 'summary': 'Discusses the hardware and architectural principles necessary for observing dynamical principles in neuromorphic machines, focusing on the hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules.', 'duration': 201.246, 'highlights': ['The hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules are crucial for achieving efficient information integration across space and time. The different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules, with the cortex having 10 billion neurons and a layered structure, and the hippocampus having about 100 million neurons structured very differently, are crucial for achieving efficient information integration across space and time.', 'The thalamocortical complex, which coordinates the activity between the neocortex and the hippocampus, is crucial in ensuring that they communicate effectively and send useful messages to one another. The thalamocortical complex, responsible for coordinating the activity between the neocortex and the hippocampus and facilitating their communication, is crucial in ensuring effective messaging and coordination between the different modules.', 'The size and organization of neurons in the cortex and hippocampus modules play a significant role, with the cortex having 10 billion neurons organized in a power law distribution, and the hippocampus having about 100 million neurons structured very differently. The size and organization of neurons in the cortex and hippocampus modules play a significant role, with the cortex having 10 billion neurons organized in a power law distribution, and the hippocampus having about 100 million neurons structured very differently.', 'The chapter discusses the hardware and architectural principles necessary for observing dynamical principles in neuromorphic machines, focusing on the hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules. The chapter discusses the hardware and architectural principles necessary for observing dynamical principles in neuromorphic machines, focusing on the hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules.']}, {'end': 4961.756, 'start': 4316.192, 'title': 'Neuromorphic computing and superconducting hardware', 'summary': 'Explores the thalamic cortical complex visualizations, the storage mechanisms of memory in neuromorphic computing, and the integration of first principles in superconducting hardware for neuromorphic computing.', 'duration': 645.564, 'highlights': ['The thalamic cortical complex visualizations on YouTube provide incredible visualizations of the human brain processing information, with 1000 views, showcasing the chemical and electrical signals throughout the brain resembling the universe. The visualizations of the thalamic cortical complex on YouTube have around 1000 views and showcase the incredible visualizations of the human brain processing information, resembling the universe, through tracing chemical and electrical signals throughout the brain.', 'Memory storage mechanisms in neuromorphic computing include working memory stored in the dynamical patterns of activity between neurons and the ability to change the strength of connection between neurons through synaptic weight update, involving supervised and unsupervised learning. Memory storage mechanisms in neuromorphic computing include working memory stored in the dynamical patterns of activity between neurons and the ability to change the strength of connection between neurons through synaptic weight update, involving supervised and unsupervised learning.', 'The formation of new synaptic connections and adaptation on different time scales are crucial in early stages of brain development and spiking neural networks, involving short-term synaptic plasticity, metaplasticity, and homeostatic adaptation. The formation of new synaptic connections and adaptation on different time scales are crucial in early stages of brain development and spiking neural networks, involving short-term synaptic plasticity, metaplasticity, and homeostatic adaptation.', 'Integration of first principles in superconducting hardware for neuromorphic computing involves communication across various distances and times, with a team at NIST in Boulder, Colorado contributing to the evolution of thinking over the years. Integration of first principles in superconducting hardware for neuromorphic computing involves communication across various distances and times, with a team at NIST in Boulder, Colorado contributing to the evolution of thinking over the years.']}], 'duration': 847.977, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44113779.jpg', 'highlights': ['The hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules are crucial for achieving efficient information integration across space and time.', 'The thalamocortical complex, responsible for coordinating the activity between the neocortex and the hippocampus and facilitating their communication, is crucial in ensuring effective messaging and coordination between the different modules.', 'The size and organization of neurons in the cortex and hippocampus modules play a significant role, with the cortex having 10 billion neurons organized in a power law distribution, and the hippocampus having about 100 million neurons structured very differently.', 'The chapter discusses the hardware and architectural principles necessary for observing dynamical principles in neuromorphic machines, focusing on the hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules.', 'Memory storage mechanisms in neuromorphic computing include working memory stored in the dynamical patterns of activity between neurons and the ability to change the strength of connection between neurons through synaptic weight update, involving supervised and unsupervised learning.', 'The formation of new synaptic connections and adaptation on different time scales are crucial in early stages of brain development and spiking neural networks, involving short-term synaptic plasticity, metaplasticity, and homeostatic adaptation.', 'Integration of first principles in superconducting hardware for neuromorphic computing involves communication across various distances and times, with a team at NIST in Boulder, Colorado contributing to the evolution of thinking over the years.', 'The thalamic cortical complex visualizations on YouTube have around 1000 views and showcase the incredible visualizations of the human brain processing information, resembling the universe, through tracing chemical and electrical signals throughout the brain.']}, {'end': 6161.595, 'segs': [{'end': 5070.467, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5024.285, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 5026.805, 'text': 'This project is sort of cross-disciplinary.', 'start': 5024.285, 'duration': 2.52}, {'end': 5034.947, 'text': "I would love to be working more with neuroscientists and things, but We haven't reached that scale yet, but yeah.", 'start': 5026.905, 'duration': 8.042}, {'end': 5038.729, 'text': "You're focused on the hardware side, which requires all the disciplines that you mentioned.", 'start': 5034.987, 'duration': 3.742}, {'end': 5044.251, 'text': 'And then of course, neuroscience may be a source of inspiration for some of the long-term vision.', 'start': 5039.209, 'duration': 5.042}, {'end': 5046.191, 'text': 'I would actually call it more than inspiration.', 'start': 5044.391, 'duration': 1.8}, {'end': 5047.512, 'text': 'I would call it sort of..', 'start': 5046.271, 'duration': 1.241}, {'end': 5050.834, 'text': 'a roadmap.', 'start': 5049.693, 'duration': 1.141}, {'end': 5059.199, 'text': "We're not trying to build exactly the brain, but I don't think it's enough to just say, oh, neurons kind of work like that.", 'start': 5051.374, 'duration': 7.825}, {'end': 5061.24, 'text': "Let's kind of do that thing.", 'start': 5059.239, 'duration': 2.001}, {'end': 5070.467, 'text': "We're very much following the concepts that the cognitive sciences have laid out for us, which I believe is a really robust roadmap.", 'start': 5061.8, 'duration': 8.667}], 'summary': 'Project integrates hardware and neuroscience concepts for a robust roadmap.', 'duration': 46.182, 'max_score': 5024.285, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45024285.jpg'}, {'end': 5197.349, 'src': 'heatmap', 'start': 5088.092, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 5093.557, 'text': 'I read more of the neuroscience literature and I was just taken by the exact opposite sense.', 'start': 5088.092, 'duration': 5.465}, {'end': 5095.839, 'text': "I can't believe how much they know about this.", 'start': 5093.717, 'duration': 2.122}, {'end': 5104.186, 'text': "I can't believe how mathematically rigorous and sort of theoretically complete a lot of the concepts are.", 'start': 5095.899, 'duration': 8.287}, {'end': 5108.547, 'text': "That's not to say we understand consciousness or we understand the self or anything like that.", 'start': 5104.226, 'duration': 4.321}, {'end': 5113.328, 'text': 'but what is the brain doing and why is it doing those things??', 'start': 5108.547, 'duration': 4.781}, {'end': 5115.948, 'text': 'Neuroscientists have a lot of answers to those questions.', 'start': 5113.668, 'duration': 2.28}, {'end': 5122.35, 'text': "So if you're a hardware designer that just wants to get going, whoa, it's pretty clear which direction to go in, I think.", 'start': 5116.229, 'duration': 6.121}, {'end': 5127.931, 'text': 'Okay So I love the optimism behind that.', 'start': 5123.01, 'duration': 4.921}, {'end': 5137.119, 'text': 'But in the implementation of these systems that uses superconductivity.', 'start': 5128.291, 'duration': 8.828}, {'end': 5137.939, 'text': 'how do you make it happen?', 'start': 5137.119, 'duration': 0.82}, {'end': 5143.141, 'text': 'So to me, it starts with thinking about the communication network.', 'start': 5139.46, 'duration': 3.681}, {'end': 5152.205, 'text': 'You know for sure that the ability of each neuron to communicate to many thousands of colleagues across the network is indispensable.', 'start': 5143.481, 'duration': 8.724}, {'end': 5157.367, 'text': 'I take that as a core principle of my architecture, my thinking on the subject.', 'start': 5152.425, 'duration': 4.942}, {'end': 5165.291, 'text': "So coming from a background in photonics, it was very natural to say, okay, we're going to use light for communication.", 'start': 5158.487, 'duration': 6.804}, {'end': 5170.814, 'text': 'Just in case listeners may not know, light is often used in communication.', 'start': 5165.371, 'duration': 5.443}, {'end': 5175.277, 'text': "I mean, if you think about radio, that's light, it's long wavelengths, but it's electromagnetic radiation.", 'start': 5170.834, 'duration': 4.443}, {'end': 5179.759, 'text': "It's the same physical phenomenon obeying exactly the same Maxwell's equations.", 'start': 5175.317, 'duration': 4.442}, {'end': 5182.061, 'text': 'And then all the way down to..', 'start': 5180.38, 'duration': 1.681}, {'end': 5184.861, 'text': 'fiber optics.', 'start': 5183.42, 'duration': 1.441}, {'end': 5187.783, 'text': "Now you're using visible or near infrared wavelengths of light,", 'start': 5184.941, 'duration': 2.842}, {'end': 5193.126, 'text': 'but the way you send messages across the ocean is now contemporary over optical fibers.', 'start': 5187.783, 'duration': 5.343}, {'end': 5197.349, 'text': 'So using light for communication is not a stretch.', 'start': 5193.186, 'duration': 4.163}], 'summary': 'Neuroscience literature reveals advanced understanding; advocates for using light in communication networks for hardware design.', 'duration': 109.257, 'max_score': 5088.092, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45088092.jpg'}, {'end': 5122.35, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5093.717, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 5095.839, 'text': "I can't believe how much they know about this.", 'start': 5093.717, 'duration': 2.122}, {'end': 5104.186, 'text': "I can't believe how mathematically rigorous and sort of theoretically complete a lot of the concepts are.", 'start': 5095.899, 'duration': 8.287}, {'end': 5108.547, 'text': "That's not to say we understand consciousness or we understand the self or anything like that.", 'start': 5104.226, 'duration': 4.321}, {'end': 5113.328, 'text': 'but what is the brain doing and why is it doing those things??', 'start': 5108.547, 'duration': 4.781}, {'end': 5115.948, 'text': 'Neuroscientists have a lot of answers to those questions.', 'start': 5113.668, 'duration': 2.28}, {'end': 5122.35, 'text': "So if you're a hardware designer that just wants to get going, whoa, it's pretty clear which direction to go in, I think.", 'start': 5116.229, 'duration': 6.121}], 'summary': "Neuroscientists have comprehensive answers about the brain's functionality, guiding hardware design.", 'duration': 28.633, 'max_score': 5093.717, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45093717.jpg'}, {'end': 5165.291, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5143.481, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 5152.205, 'text': 'You know for sure that the ability of each neuron to communicate to many thousands of colleagues across the network is indispensable.', 'start': 5143.481, 'duration': 8.724}, {'end': 5157.367, 'text': 'I take that as a core principle of my architecture, my thinking on the subject.', 'start': 5152.425, 'duration': 4.942}, {'end': 5165.291, 'text': "So coming from a background in photonics, it was very natural to say, okay, we're going to use light for communication.", 'start': 5158.487, 'duration': 6.804}], 'summary': 'Neuron communication is vital; using light for communication in photonics background.', 'duration': 21.81, 'max_score': 5143.481, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45143481.jpg'}, {'end': 5676.515, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5634.492, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 5640.92, 'text': "One is that, as I mentioned, it's difficult to integrate those compound semiconductor light sources with silicon.", 'start': 5634.492, 'duration': 6.428}, {'end': 5646.948, 'text': 'With silicon is a requirement that is introduced by the fact that using semiconducting electronics.', 'start': 5641.361, 'duration': 5.587}, {'end': 5653.813, 'text': "In superconducting electronics, you're still going to start with a silicon wafer, but it's just the bread for your sandwich in a lot of ways.", 'start': 5647.308, 'duration': 6.505}, {'end': 5657.676, 'text': "You're not using that silicon in precisely the same way for the electronics.", 'start': 5653.833, 'duration': 3.843}, {'end': 5661.158, 'text': "You're now depositing superconducting materials on top of that.", 'start': 5657.696, 'duration': 3.462}, {'end': 5671.973, 'text': 'The prospects for integrating light sources with that kind of an electronic process are Certainly less explored, but, I think, much more promising,', 'start': 5661.919, 'duration': 10.054}, {'end': 5676.515, 'text': "because you don't need those light sources to be intimately integrated with the transistors.", 'start': 5671.973, 'duration': 4.542}], 'summary': 'Integrating compound semiconductor light sources with silicon is challenging, but integrating with superconducting electronics shows promising prospects.', 'duration': 42.023, 'max_score': 5634.492, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45634492.jpg'}, {'end': 5833.054, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5809.888, 'weight': 7, 'content': [{'end': 5823.123, 'text': 'So The fact that your synapses can now be based on superconducting detectors instead of semiconducting detectors brings the light levels that are required down by some three orders of magnitude.', 'start': 5809.888, 'duration': 13.235}, {'end': 5826.227, 'text': "So now you don't need good light sources.", 'start': 5823.203, 'duration': 3.024}, {'end': 5833.054, 'text': "You can have the world's worst light sources as long as they spit out maybe a few thousand photons every time a neuron fires.", 'start': 5826.567, 'duration': 6.487}], 'summary': 'Superconducting detectors reduce light levels by three orders of magnitude, enabling neuron firing with low light sources.', 'duration': 23.166, 'max_score': 5809.888, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45809888.jpg'}, {'end': 5909.083, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 5879.612, 'weight': 8, 'content': [{'end': 5881.572, 'text': 'What are some of the constraints of the operation here?', 'start': 5879.612, 'duration': 1.96}, {'end': 5883.353, 'text': 'Does it all have to be a four Kelvin as well?', 'start': 5881.632, 'duration': 1.721}, {'end': 5884.358, 'text': '4 Kelvin?', 'start': 5883.758, 'duration': 0.6}, {'end': 5885.558, 'text': 'everything has to be at 4 Kelvin.', 'start': 5884.358, 'duration': 1.2}, {'end': 5893.62, 'text': 'Okay, so what are the other engineering challenges of making this kind of optoelectronic systems?', 'start': 5886.919, 'duration': 6.701}, {'end': 5899.181, 'text': 'Let me just dwell on that 4 Kelvin for a second, because some people hear 4 Kelvin and they just get up and leave.', 'start': 5894.4, 'duration': 4.781}, {'end': 5905.282, 'text': "They just say, I'm not doing it, you know? And to me, that's very Earth-centric, species-centric.", 'start': 5899.261, 'duration': 6.021}, {'end': 5909.083, 'text': 'We live in 300 Kelvin, so we want our technologies to operate there too.', 'start': 5905.422, 'duration': 3.661}], 'summary': 'Challenges include operating at 4 kelvin, aiming for technologies to operate at 300 kelvin.', 'duration': 29.471, 'max_score': 5879.612, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq45879612.jpg'}], 'start': 4963.778, 'title': 'Interdisciplinary integration in neuroscience and hardware', 'summary': "Explores interdisciplinary collaboration in hardware development for neuroscience, emphasizing integration of cognitive science concepts and extensive neuroscientists' knowledge base. it discusses challenges and potential benefits of implementing superconductivity and optoelectronic integration in neuromorphic systems, highlighting architectural limitations, reduced integration needs, and advantages of using light for communication in digital systems.", 'chapters': [{'end': 5115.948, 'start': 4963.778, 'title': 'Neuroscience and hardware integration', 'summary': 'Discusses the interdisciplinary nature of a project in hardware development for neuroscience, involving physicists, electrical engineers, and material scientists, emphasizing the integration of cognitive science concepts and the extensive knowledge base of neuroscientists in understanding brain functions.', 'duration': 152.17, 'highlights': ['The project involves physicists, electrical engineers, and material scientists, with a focus on hardware development for neuroscience. The project involves a team of physicists, electrical engineers, and material scientists, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of the project in hardware development for neuroscience.', "The integration of cognitive science concepts is emphasized in the project's approach, following a robust roadmap laid out by cognitive sciences. The project emphasizes the integration of cognitive science concepts and a robust roadmap laid out by cognitive sciences, indicating a deliberate approach to incorporating cognitive science principles.", 'Neuroscientists possess significant knowledge about brain functions, with mathematically rigorous and theoretically complete concepts. Neuroscientists are noted to possess significant knowledge about brain functions, with mathematically rigorous and theoretically complete concepts, challenging the notion that the brain is not well understood.']}, {'end': 5610.346, 'start': 5116.229, 'title': 'Implementing superconductivity in neuromorphic systems', 'summary': 'Discusses the use of light for communication in neuromorphic systems, highlighting the challenges of integrating compound semiconductor light sources with silicon and its architectural limitations, while pointing towards the potential benefits of using light for communication in digital systems.', 'duration': 494.117, 'highlights': ['Using light for communication in neuromorphic systems is essential for enabling neurons to communicate with thousands of colleagues, leveraging the natural properties of light for efficient communication.', 'Integrating compound semiconductor light sources with silicon poses significant challenges due to the difficulty of situating them with silicon transistors, leading to architectural limitations and requiring separate chip integration.', 'The integration of compound semiconductor light sources with silicon at the package level provides significant bandwidth advantages over electrical lines, although it introduces architectural limitations and necessitates extensive work.', 'The pursuit of integrating compound semiconductors with silicon should be continued, but it is unlikely to become the standard monolithic light source on silicon process due to the challenges and limitations involved.']}, {'end': 6161.595, 'start': 5610.346, 'title': 'Optoelectronic integration with superconducting electronics', 'summary': 'Discusses the potential of integrating light sources with superconducting electronics, highlighting the advantages such as the reduced need for precise integration with silicon, lower light source requirements due to superconducting detectors, and the challenges of operating at 4 kelvin.', 'duration': 551.249, 'highlights': ['The potential of integrating light sources with superconducting electronics Discusses the game-changing potential of integrating light sources with superconducting electronics, emphasizing the advantages in terms of reduced requirements for precise integration with silicon.', 'Advantages of reduced need for precise integration with silicon Explains the reduced need for precise integration with silicon in superconducting electronics, allowing for the deposition of superconducting materials on a silicon wafer and the potential to grow superconducting electronics on top of compound semiconductor light sources.', "Lower light source requirements due to superconducting detectors Highlights the advantages of using superconducting detectors, reducing the required light levels by three orders of magnitude and enabling the use of less efficient light sources, potentially leveraging silicon's performance at low temperatures.", 'Challenges of operating at 4 Kelvin Addresses the challenges of operating at 4 Kelvin, acknowledging the significant temperature requirement and the potential barriers for widespread adoption in practical consumer applications.']}], 'duration': 1197.817, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq44963778.jpg', 'highlights': ['The project involves physicists, electrical engineers, and material scientists, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of the project in hardware development for neuroscience.', "The integration of cognitive science concepts is emphasized in the project's approach, following a robust roadmap laid out by cognitive sciences.", 'Neuroscientists possess significant knowledge about brain functions, with mathematically rigorous and theoretically complete concepts.', 'Using light for communication in neuromorphic systems is essential for enabling neurons to communicate with thousands of colleagues, leveraging the natural properties of light for efficient communication.', 'Integrating compound semiconductor light sources with silicon poses significant challenges due to the difficulty of situating them with silicon transistors, leading to architectural limitations and requiring separate chip integration.', 'The potential of integrating light sources with superconducting electronics, emphasizing the advantages in terms of reduced requirements for precise integration with silicon.', 'Advantages of reduced need for precise integration with silicon in superconducting electronics, allowing for the deposition of superconducting materials on a silicon wafer and the potential to grow superconducting electronics on top of compound semiconductor light sources.', "Lower light source requirements due to superconducting detectors, reducing the required light levels by three orders of magnitude and enabling the use of less efficient light sources, potentially leveraging silicon's performance at low temperatures.", 'Challenges of operating at 4 Kelvin, acknowledging the significant temperature requirement and the potential barriers for widespread adoption in practical consumer applications.']}, {'end': 7453.095, 'segs': [{'end': 6214.728, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6184.707, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 6190.532, 'text': 'based on optics, photonics for communication, superconducting, electronics for computation.', 'start': 6184.707, 'duration': 5.825}, {'end': 6191.392, 'text': 'how does this all work?', 'start': 6190.532, 'duration': 0.86}, {'end': 6202.774, 'text': 'A neuron in this hardware platform can be thought of as circuits that are based on Josephson junctions, like we talked about before,', 'start': 6193.624, 'duration': 9.15}, {'end': 6205.317, 'text': 'where every time a photon comes in.', 'start': 6202.774, 'duration': 2.543}, {'end': 6207.039, 'text': "so let's start by talking about a synapse.", 'start': 6205.317, 'duration': 1.722}, {'end': 6214.728, 'text': 'A synapse receives a photon, one or more, from a different neuron, and it converts that optical signal to an electrical signal.', 'start': 6207.159, 'duration': 7.569}], 'summary': 'Hardware platform uses photonics to convert optical signals to electrical signals for neuron circuits based on josephson junctions.', 'duration': 30.021, 'max_score': 6184.707, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq46184707.jpg'}, {'end': 6313.581, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6288.533, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 6298.645, 'text': "When you're using superconductors for this, the energy of that circulating current is less than the energy of that photon.", 'start': 6288.533, 'duration': 10.112}, {'end': 6303.33, 'text': 'So your energy budget is not destroyed by doing this analog computation.', 'start': 6298.665, 'duration': 4.665}, {'end': 6309.256, 'text': "so now, in the language of of a neuroscientist, you would say that's your postsynaptic signal.", 'start': 6304.131, 'duration': 5.125}, {'end': 6311.779, 'text': 'you have this current being stored in a loop.', 'start': 6309.256, 'duration': 2.523}, {'end': 6313.581, 'text': 'you can decide what you want to do with it.', 'start': 6311.779, 'duration': 1.802}], 'summary': 'Superconductors enable analog computation, preserving energy and storing current for decision-making.', 'duration': 25.048, 'max_score': 6288.533, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq46288533.jpg'}, {'end': 6652.967, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6631.13, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 6640.398, 'text': "They're bigger when they need to communicate over long distances, but grappling with the size of these structures is inevitable and crucial.", 'start': 6631.13, 'duration': 9.268}, {'end': 6652.967, 'text': 'In order to make systems of comparable scale to the human brain by scale here I mean number of interconnected neurons you absolutely have to be using the third spatial dimension.', 'start': 6641.538, 'duration': 11.429}], 'summary': 'To match human brain scale, use 3d for neuron connection', 'duration': 21.837, 'max_score': 6631.13, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq46631130.jpg'}, {'end': 6798.155, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 6767.395, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 6774.021, 'text': "Yeah, the term loop neurons comes from the fact, like we've been talking about, that they rely heavily on these superconducting loops.", 'start': 6767.395, 'duration': 6.626}, {'end': 6785.251, 'text': 'So even in a lot of forms of digital computing with superconductors, storing a signal in a superconducting loop is a primary technique.', 'start': 6774.241, 'duration': 11.01}, {'end': 6789.352, 'text': "In this particular case, it's just loops everywhere you look.", 'start': 6785.991, 'duration': 3.361}, {'end': 6798.155, 'text': 'So the strength of a synaptic weight is going to be set by the amount of current circulating in a loop that is coupled to the synapse.', 'start': 6789.452, 'duration': 8.703}], 'summary': 'Superconducting loop neurons rely on loops for signal storage and synaptic weight determination.', 'duration': 30.76, 'max_score': 6767.395, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq46767395.jpg'}, {'end': 7073.073, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7050.705, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 7061.389, 'text': 'So it ends up being something like a factor of 1000 to 10,000 speed improvement which allows us to simulate, but hopefully up to millions of neurons,', 'start': 7050.705, 'duration': 10.684}, {'end': 7065.03, 'text': 'whereas before we would have been limited to tens hundreds.', 'start': 7061.389, 'duration': 3.641}, {'end': 7065.611, 'text': 'something like that.', 'start': 7065.03, 'duration': 0.581}, {'end': 7073.073, 'text': 'And just like simulating quantum mechanical systems with a quantum computer, so the goal here is to understand such systems.', 'start': 7065.871, 'duration': 7.202}], 'summary': 'Achieved 1000 to 10,000 speed improvement, enabling simulation of millions of neurons, up from previous limit of tens to hundreds.', 'duration': 22.368, 'max_score': 7050.705, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq47050705.jpg'}], 'start': 6161.615, 'title': 'Advancements in neural hardware', 'summary': 'Explores neural networks in hardware, superconducting neuron circuits, the third dimension in neuronal systems, and superconducting loop neurons. it discusses hardware platforms for neural networks using josephson junctions and superconducting single photon detectors, superconducting circuits for neural processing, technical limitations of neuronal hardware, and the concept of loop neurons relying on superconducting loops for communication and memory storage.', 'chapters': [{'end': 6270.398, 'start': 6161.615, 'title': 'Neural networks in hardware', 'summary': 'Discusses the hardware platform for neural networks, which use circuits based on josephson junctions and superconducting single photon detectors to process optical and electrical signals, enabling analog computation and controlling synaptic weight.', 'duration': 108.783, 'highlights': ['The hardware platform for neural networks is based on circuits using Josephson junctions and superconducting single photon detectors.', 'The synapse receives one or more photons from a different neuron and converts the optical signal to an electrical signal, with the amount of current controlled by the synaptic weight.', 'The synaptic weight determines the number of fluxons that are added to the loop, enabling analog computation.', 'A photon hitting a superconducting single photon detector results in an electrical signal, correlated with a specific weight, which determines the number of fluxons added to the loop.']}, {'end': 6529.823, 'start': 6270.398, 'title': 'Superconducting neuron circuits', 'summary': 'Discusses using superconducting circuits for neural processing, including storing current in a loop, implementing synapse and dendritic processing, and producing light pulses for communication, enabling efficient and versatile neural computation and communication.', 'duration': 259.425, 'highlights': ['Superconducting circuits can store current in a loop, implement synapse and dendritic processing, and produce light pulses for communication. The energy of circulating current in superconducting circuits is less than that of photons, enabling efficient analog computation without destroying the energy budget.', 'Synapse event occurs when a photon strikes a detector, adds current to the loop, and decays over time, enabling efficient storage and processing of synaptic signals. Synapse event is determined by putting a resistor in the superconducting loop, which decays the current over time based on a given time constant.', 'Using a basic building block circuit, diverse plasticity mechanisms can be implemented for synapse, dendrite, and neuron cell body, providing versatility in neural computation. The same building block circuit with optical and electrical components allows for implementing diverse plasticity mechanisms by adjusting parameters, enabling versatile neural computation.', 'Neuron cell body receives electrical inputs from synapses or dendrites, producing light pulses when reaching threshold, which then drive downstream synaptic terminals, enabling efficient neural communication. Neuron cell body produces a pulse of light when driven above its critical current, initiating a voltage amplification sequence that produces light for communication, enabling efficient neural communication.', 'Waveguides are used to guide light across a network, enabling efficient communication across different subregions and layers of the network. Waveguides are used to guide light in a network, enabling efficient communication across different subregions and layers by branching and targeting different regions of the network.']}, {'end': 6747.198, 'start': 6530.723, 'title': 'The third dimension in neuronal systems', 'summary': 'Discusses the technical limitations of neuronal hardware, highlighting how the compactness of the human brain poses challenges for creating hardware systems of comparable complexity, emphasizing the necessity of utilizing the third spatial dimension to achieve a scale similar to the human brain, and the importance of fractal stacking for efficient information transfer.', 'duration': 216.475, 'highlights': ['The necessity of utilizing the third spatial dimension to achieve a scale similar to the human brain, due to the compactness of the human brain and the technical limitations of neuronal hardware. The technical limitations of creating hardware systems of comparable complexity to the human brain due to the compactness of the human brain, the challenges posed by the small volume of the brain for creating hardware systems, and the importance of utilizing the third spatial dimension to achieve a scale similar to the human brain.', 'The challenges of creating hardware systems of comparable complexity to the human brain due to the size limitations of semiconductor-based neurons, superconducting neurons, and communication components such as wires and waveguides. The size limitations of semiconductor-based neurons, superconducting neurons, wires, and waveguides for communication, and the difficulties in making these components smaller, leading to challenges in creating hardware systems of comparable complexity to the human brain.', 'The importance of fractal stacking for efficient information transfer, involving stacking on the wafer, stacking of the wafers, and combining stacking of the tables with the wafers, as the only way to efficiently transfer information across a whole network and the necessity of using light for communication at this scale. The necessity of fractal stacking for efficient information transfer, involving stacking on the wafer, stacking of the wafers, and the combination of stacking of the tables with the wafers, and the importance of using light for communication at this scale.']}, {'end': 7453.095, 'start': 6748.038, 'title': 'Superconducting loop neurons', 'summary': 'Discusses the concept of loop neurons, which rely heavily on superconducting loops for electrical communication and memory storage, and the development of efficient circuit design for scalable simulation of millions of neurons, aiming to better understand physical systems and potentially enhance machine learning capabilities.', 'duration': 705.057, 'highlights': ["Loop neurons rely heavily on superconducting loops for electrical communication and memory storage. The term 'loop neurons' is derived from their reliance on superconducting loops for storing signals and circulating current to set the strength of synaptic weight.", 'Efficient circuit design allows for scalable simulation of millions of neurons with a speed improvement of up to a factor of 10,000. Computational modeling and circuit simulation were adapted to efficiently simulate circuits, resulting in a significant speed improvement, enabling the simulation of millions of neurons as compared to previous limitations of tens to hundreds.', 'The goal is to study superconducting electronics as a scientific physical system and potentially enhance machine learning capabilities in the long term. The primary goal is to understand superconducting electronics as a scientific physical system, with potential applications in machine learning capabilities in the long term, aiming to achieve better performance than silicon-based systems in tasks such as image classification and face recognition.']}], 'duration': 1291.48, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq46161615.jpg', 'highlights': ['The hardware platform for neural networks is based on circuits using Josephson junctions and superconducting single photon detectors.', 'Superconducting circuits can store current in a loop, implement synapse and dendritic processing, and produce light pulses for communication.', 'The necessity of utilizing the third spatial dimension to achieve a scale similar to the human brain, due to the compactness of the human brain and the technical limitations of neuronal hardware.', 'Loop neurons rely heavily on superconducting loops for electrical communication and memory storage.', 'Efficient circuit design allows for scalable simulation of millions of neurons with a speed improvement of up to a factor of 10,000.']}, {'end': 8992.976, 'segs': [{'end': 7549.575, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7500.061, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 7504.804, 'text': 'doing so because the machine learning problem happens to be involved with autonomous driving.', 'start': 7500.061, 'duration': 4.743}, {'end': 7509.107, 'text': "And so you have a system that's driven by an application.", 'start': 7505.164, 'duration': 3.943}, {'end': 7516.67, 'text': "And that's really interesting because, you know, you have maybe Google working on TPUs and so on.", 'start': 7509.847, 'duration': 6.823}, {'end': 7520.732, 'text': 'You have all these other companies with ASICs.', 'start': 7516.69, 'duration': 4.042}, {'end': 7524.953, 'text': "They're usually more kind of always thinking general.", 'start': 7521.512, 'duration': 3.441}, {'end': 7532.537, 'text': "So I like it when it's driven by a particular application, because then you can really get to the it's like.", 'start': 7526.014, 'duration': 6.523}, {'end': 7540.224, 'text': 'Somehow, if you just talk broadly about intelligence, you may not always get to the right solutions.', 'start': 7534.037, 'duration': 6.187}, {'end': 7548.273, 'text': "It's nice to couple that sometimes with specific, clear illustration of something that requires general intelligence, which for me,", 'start': 7540.304, 'duration': 7.969}, {'end': 7549.575, 'text': 'driving is one such case.', 'start': 7548.273, 'duration': 1.302}], 'summary': 'Machine learning in autonomous driving is driven by specific applications, not just general intelligence.', 'duration': 49.514, 'max_score': 7500.061, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq47500061.jpg'}, {'end': 7693.994, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7664.912, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 7668.715, 'text': 'But for the most part, I think they prefer to retrain the entire thing.', 'start': 7664.912, 'duration': 3.803}, {'end': 7674.458, 'text': 'So you have this giant monster that kind of has to be retrained regularly.', 'start': 7668.735, 'duration': 5.723}, {'end': 7685.207, 'text': 'I think the vision with dojos to have a very large machine learning focused, driving, focused supercomputer.', 'start': 7674.939, 'duration': 10.268}, {'end': 7689.95, 'text': 'that then is sufficiently modular that can be scaled to other machine learning applications.', 'start': 7685.207, 'duration': 4.743}, {'end': 7693.994, 'text': "But like so, they're not limiting themselves completely to this particular application.", 'start': 7690.331, 'duration': 3.663}], 'summary': 'Dojos aims to be a large, modular supercomputer for retraining machine learning models.', 'duration': 29.082, 'max_score': 7664.912, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq47664912.jpg'}, {'end': 7858.127, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 7835.108, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 7844.734, 'text': "So when you're going to deploy this neural network, In every single automobile with so much on the line, you have to be able to trust that.", 'start': 7835.108, 'duration': 9.626}, {'end': 7847.997, 'text': 'How do we know that we can trust that?', 'start': 7845.895, 'duration': 2.102}, {'end': 7853.182, 'text': 'How do we know that we can trust the self-driving car or the supercomputer that trained it??', 'start': 7848.037, 'duration': 5.145}, {'end': 7858.127, 'text': "There's a lot of work there and there's a lot of that going on at NIST and it's still early days.", 'start': 7853.783, 'duration': 4.344}], 'summary': "Nist is addressing trust in neural networks for self-driving cars and supercomputers, but it's still early days.", 'duration': 23.019, 'max_score': 7835.108, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq47835108.jpg'}, {'end': 8081.656, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8053.177, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 8066.686, 'text': 'So what you argue in this article is it may be that the universe has also fine-tuned its parameters that enable the kind of technological innovation that we see,', 'start': 8053.177, 'duration': 13.509}, {'end': 8069.068, 'text': 'that technology that we see.', 'start': 8066.686, 'duration': 2.382}, {'end': 8073.394, 'text': "Can you explain this idea? Yeah, I think you've introduced it nicely.", 'start': 8070.008, 'duration': 3.386}, {'end': 8078.415, 'text': 'Let me just try to say a few things in my language.', 'start': 8073.454, 'duration': 4.961}, {'end': 8081.656, 'text': 'Leo, what is this fine tuning problem?', 'start': 8079.235, 'duration': 2.421}], 'summary': 'The article suggests that the universe may have fine-tuned parameters for technological innovation.', 'duration': 28.479, 'max_score': 8053.177, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq48053177.jpg'}, {'end': 8507.252, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8484.921, 'weight': 5, 'content': [{'end': 8497.146, 'text': 'But I want to introduce this idea of cosmological natural selection because I think that is one of the core ideas that could change our understanding of how the universe got here,', 'start': 8484.921, 'duration': 12.225}, {'end': 8499.147, 'text': 'our role in it, what technology is doing here.', 'start': 8497.146, 'duration': 2.001}, {'end': 8502.289, 'text': "But there's a couple more pieces that need to be set up first.", 'start': 8499.907, 'duration': 2.382}, {'end': 8507.252, 'text': 'So the beginning of our universe is largely accepted to be the Big Bang.', 'start': 8502.349, 'duration': 4.903}], 'summary': "Cosmological natural selection could change our understanding of the universe's origin and our role in it.", 'duration': 22.331, 'max_score': 8484.921, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq48484921.jpg'}, {'end': 8853.943, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 8825.13, 'weight': 6, 'content': [{'end': 8828.572, 'text': 'There is this concept of the multiverse, and it can be confusing.', 'start': 8825.13, 'duration': 3.442}, {'end': 8830.973, 'text': 'Different people use the word multiverse in different ways.', 'start': 8828.612, 'duration': 2.361}, {'end': 8835.155, 'text': 'In the multiverse.', 'start': 8832.834, 'duration': 2.321}, {'end': 8839.797, 'text': "that I think is relevant to picture when trying to grasp Lee Smolin's idea.", 'start': 8835.155, 'duration': 4.642}, {'end': 8845.879, 'text': 'Essentially, every vacuum fluctuation can be referred to as a universe.', 'start': 8840.877, 'duration': 5.002}, {'end': 8853.943, 'text': 'It occurs, it borrows energy from the vacuum for some finite amount of time, and it evanesces back into the quantum vacuum.', 'start': 8846.56, 'duration': 7.383}], 'summary': 'The multiverse concept involves different interpretations and universes formed from vacuum fluctuations.', 'duration': 28.813, 'max_score': 8825.13, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq48825130.jpg'}], 'start': 7453.255, 'title': "Tesla's ml hardware and cosmological evolution", 'summary': "Discusses tesla's focus on developing modular machine learning asic for autonomous driving, leading to significant financial benefits. it also explores cosmological evolution's potential link to technological innovation and cosmological natural selection's concept, suggesting the universe's extensive multiverse.", 'chapters': [{'end': 7573.013, 'start': 7453.255, 'title': "Tesla's modular machine learning hardware", 'summary': "Discusses tesla's focus on developing a large-scale modular machine learning asic optimized for autonomous driving, distinguishing it from other companies working on similar problems and leading to significant financial and societal benefits.", 'duration': 119.758, 'highlights': ["Tesla's singular focus on developing a large-scale modular machine learning ASIC optimized for autonomous driving is making a significant impact financially and in terms of societal benefit.", 'The approach of coupling machine learning development with a specific application, like autonomous driving, provides clearer illustrations and solutions for general intelligence problems.', 'The focus on a specific application, such as autonomous driving, directs energy and attention, leading to significant financial and societal benefits.', "The concept of developing hardware optimized for training neural networks in a modular way with fast communication is a key aspect of Tesla's approach."]}, {'end': 8011.312, 'start': 7573.053, 'title': 'Dojo system and self-driving cars', 'summary': 'Discusses the dojo system for retraining large neural networks in the context of self-driving cars, emphasizing the iterative process of making the system smarter through diverse input data and the challenges of trustworthiness in deploying ai in automobiles.', 'duration': 438.259, 'highlights': ['The Dojo system involves retraining a large neural network over and over, deploying it on numerous cars, and iteratively making the system smarter through diverse input data. Illustrates the iterative process of retraining neural networks and deploying them on a large scale, emphasizing the need for diverse input data for making the system smarter.', 'Challenges of trustworthiness arise in deploying neural networks in self-driving cars, leading to a focus on achieving provable safety and robustness to imperfection in engineering. Highlights the importance of trustworthiness and provable safety in deploying AI in automobiles, along with the engineering challenges of building systems with robustness to imperfection.', 'The goal of autonomous driving is seen as a human-robot interaction problem rather than a purely robotics problem, emphasizing the imperfection as a feature in the system. Discusses the perspective that autonomous driving is fundamentally a human-robot interaction problem and the concept of imperfection as a feature in the interaction between humans and robots.']}, {'end': 8419.442, 'start': 8011.312, 'title': 'Cosmological evolution and technological innovation', 'summary': 'Discusses the fine-tuning problem in physics, the parameters that define the universe, and the potential link between cosmological evolution and technological innovation, questioning whether nature is a catalyst or a ceiling for innovation.', 'duration': 408.13, 'highlights': ['The fine-tuning problem in physics revolves around the parameters that define the structure of the universe, with the argument that these parameters seem to be finely-tuned to enable the existence of a complex, long-lived universe.', 'The existence of parameters in physics that determine the strength of different couplings and interactions, such as the fine structure constant, which, if adjusted, would result in a universe that is not conducive to our existence or technological innovation.', 'The discussion raises questions about whether the parameters of the universe have been adapted through an evolutionary process to allow for the development of specific technologies, potentially serving as a catalyst for innovation.', 'The debate explores whether nature sets limits on technological innovation or simply makes certain dimensions of innovation easier, prompting the consideration of whether the parameters of the universe dictate the maximum potential for innovation.']}, {'end': 8992.976, 'start': 8419.442, 'title': 'Cosmological natural selection', 'summary': "Introduces lee smolin's concept of cosmological natural selection, explaining how it argues for the universe's evolution, the link between the big bang and black holes, and the idea of an extensive multiverse.", 'duration': 573.534, 'highlights': ["Lee Smolin's concept of cosmological natural selection argues for the universe's evolution and suggests that a black hole in one universe can be a big bang in another universe, allowing for offspring universes with slightly mutated parameters. Lee Smolin's concept of cosmological natural selection posits that a black hole in one universe can be a big bang in another universe, allowing for offspring universes with slightly mutated parameters, potentially leading to an evolutionary process that can be traced back to around 200 million generations.", "The chapter discusses the link between the Big Bang and black holes, suggesting that the singularity that marks the universe's origin is mathematically indistinguishable from a black hole, and stars play a crucial role in this cosmological evolution by making black holes, which in turn produce offspring universes. The chapter discusses the link between the Big Bang and black holes, pointing out that the singularity marking the universe's origin is mathematically indistinguishable from a black hole, and stars play a crucial role in cosmological evolution by making black holes, which produce offspring universes.", 'The concept of an extensive multiverse is introduced, suggesting that the universe we can measure and interact with is not unique, but rather one of countless, potentially infinite other universes with different parameters and evolutionary trajectories. The concept of an extensive multiverse is introduced, suggesting that the universe we can measure and interact with is not unique, but rather one of countless, potentially infinite other universes with different parameters and evolutionary trajectories.']}], 'duration': 1539.721, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq47453255.jpg', 'highlights': ["Tesla's focus on developing a large-scale modular machine learning ASIC optimized for autonomous driving is making a significant impact financially and in terms of societal benefit.", 'The approach of coupling machine learning development with a specific application, like autonomous driving, provides clearer illustrations and solutions for general intelligence problems.', 'The Dojo system involves retraining a large neural network over and over, deploying it on numerous cars, and iteratively making the system smarter through diverse input data.', 'Challenges of trustworthiness arise in deploying neural networks in self-driving cars, leading to a focus on achieving provable safety and robustness to imperfection in engineering.', 'The fine-tuning problem in physics revolves around the parameters that define the structure of the universe, with the argument that these parameters seem to be finely-tuned to enable the existence of a complex, long-lived universe.', "Lee Smolin's concept of cosmological natural selection argues for the universe's evolution and suggests that a black hole in one universe can be a big bang in another universe, allowing for offspring universes with slightly mutated parameters.", 'The concept of an extensive multiverse is introduced, suggesting that the universe we can measure and interact with is not unique, but rather one of countless, potentially infinite other universes with different parameters and evolutionary trajectories.']}, {'end': 10593.102, 'segs': [{'end': 9203.463, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9174.925, 'weight': 0, 'content': [{'end': 9177.946, 'text': 'This is what inflationary theory tells us.', 'start': 9174.925, 'duration': 3.021}, {'end': 9181.367, 'text': 'The Big Bang tells us that black holes make universes.', 'start': 9177.986, 'duration': 3.381}, {'end': 9185.489, 'text': 'But what if there was a technological means to make universes?', 'start': 9182.168, 'duration': 3.321}, {'end': 9192.831, 'text': "Stars require a ton of matter because they're not thinking very carefully about how you make a black hole.", 'start': 9186.129, 'duration': 6.702}, {'end': 9194.232, 'text': "They're just using gravity.", 'start': 9192.851, 'duration': 1.381}, {'end': 9203.463, 'text': 'But if we devise technologies that can efficiently compress matter into a singularity,', 'start': 9196.273, 'duration': 7.19}], 'summary': 'Inflationary theory suggests black holes make universes; technology may efficiently compress matter into a singularity.', 'duration': 28.538, 'max_score': 9174.925, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq49174925.jpg'}, {'end': 9373.321, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9344.843, 'weight': 1, 'content': [{'end': 9351.646, 'text': 'So now, if you envision an intelligent species that would potentially have been devised initially by humans,', 'start': 9344.843, 'duration': 6.803}, {'end': 9358.949, 'text': "but then based on superconducting optoelectronic networks, no doubt, and they go out and populate, they don't have to fill the galaxy.", 'start': 9351.646, 'duration': 7.303}, {'end': 9361.03, 'text': 'They just have to get out to the asteroid belt.', 'start': 9358.989, 'duration': 2.041}, {'end': 9367.816, 'text': 'they could potentially dramatically outpace the rate at which stars are producing offspring universes.', 'start': 9361.71, 'duration': 6.106}, {'end': 9373.321, 'text': "And then wouldn't you expect that that's where we came from instead of a star? Yeah.", 'start': 9367.916, 'duration': 5.405}], 'summary': 'Intelligent species based on superconducting optoelectronic networks could potentially outpace star production and originate from the asteroid belt.', 'duration': 28.478, 'max_score': 9344.843, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq49344843.jpg'}, {'end': 9542.44, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 9520.889, 'weight': 2, 'content': [{'end': 9542.44, 'text': "it would mean that the parameters of our universe have been selected so that intelligent civilizations will occur in sufficient numbers so that if they reach something like supreme technological maturity let's define that as the ability to produce black holes then that's not a highly improbable event.", 'start': 9520.889, 'duration': 21.551}], 'summary': 'Parameters of our universe selected for sufficient intelligent civilizations to reach supreme technological maturity.', 'duration': 21.551, 'max_score': 9520.889, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq49520889.jpg'}, {'end': 10067.612, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 10039.115, 'weight': 3, 'content': [{'end': 10045.8, 'text': "So if you say how much life is in our galaxy, I think that's probably the right answer is that microbes are everywhere.", 'start': 10039.115, 'duration': 6.685}, {'end': 10048.661, 'text': 'Cambrian explosion is extremely rare.', 'start': 10046.42, 'duration': 2.241}, {'end': 10060.869, 'text': 'But the Cambrian explosion kind of went like that, where within a couple tens or 100 million years, all of these body plans came into existence.', 'start': 10048.681, 'duration': 12.188}, {'end': 10067.612, 'text': 'And basically, all of the body plans that are now in existence on the planet were formed in that brief window.', 'start': 10060.989, 'duration': 6.623}], 'summary': 'Microbes are widespread in our galaxy, cambrian explosion led to rapid formation of body plans within 100 million years.', 'duration': 28.497, 'max_score': 10039.115, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq410039115.jpg'}, {'end': 10289.752, 'src': 'embed', 'start': 10261.236, 'weight': 4, 'content': [{'end': 10267.599, 'text': 'when I look at our universe, I see this extraordinary hierarchy that has developed over that time.', 'start': 10261.236, 'duration': 6.363}, {'end': 10276.004, 'text': 'So at the beginning, it was a chaotic mess of, some plasma and nothing interesting going on there.', 'start': 10268.139, 'duration': 7.865}, {'end': 10284.428, 'text': 'And even for the first stars to form, a lot of really interesting evolutionary processes had to occur.', 'start': 10276.084, 'duration': 8.344}, {'end': 10289.752, 'text': 'By evolutionary in that sense, I just mean taking place over extended periods of time.', 'start': 10284.929, 'duration': 4.823}], 'summary': "Universe's extraordinary hierarchy developed over time, from chaotic mess to first stars forming through interesting evolutionary processes.", 'duration': 28.516, 'max_score': 10261.236, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq410261236.jpg'}], 'start': 8992.976, 'title': 'Technology and the universe', 'summary': 'Explores the role of technology in understanding the universe, discussing the evolution of consciousness, the purpose of the universe, and the potential for technological means to create universes, emphasizing the relevance of conscious reflection in the evolutionary process and the efficiency of technological methods for universe creation.', 'chapters': [{'end': 9227.092, 'start': 8992.976, 'title': 'Technology and the universe', 'summary': 'Explores the role of technology in understanding the universe, discussing the evolution of consciousness, the purpose of the universe, and the potential for technological means to create universes, emphasizing the relevance of conscious reflection in the evolutionary process and the efficiency of technological methods for universe creation.', 'duration': 234.116, 'highlights': ["The universe's evolution of consciousness and the ability to reflect on itself is a fascinating aspect, emphasizing the significance of conscious existence in the universe.", "The purpose of the universe and the evolution of consciousness are discussed, questioning the role of humanity in the grand scheme of the universe's design.", 'The potential for technological means to create universes is explored, including the efficiency of compressing matter into a singularity to initiate the formation of offspring universes.']}, {'end': 9520.889, 'start': 9227.812, 'title': 'Cosmological evolution and civilization', 'summary': 'Discusses the intriguing concept of cosmological evolution leading to the creation of black holes by technologically advanced civilizations, with a potential for outpacing star production and the use of gravitational waves for communication.', 'duration': 293.077, 'highlights': ['The potential for a technological civilization to produce more than a billion black holes is discussed, with a calculation estimating that a common asteroid could produce at least a trillion black holes, outpacing star production rate by three orders of magnitude.', 'The concept of intelligent species potentially outpacing the rate at which stars produce offspring universes by populating the asteroid belt is explored, suggesting the possibility that humans may have originated from such a civilization.', 'The discussion of alternative forces, such as those used in fusion technologies, being capable of compactifying matter to form a singularity, and the potential for advanced civilizations to master gravity for manufacturing black holes.', 'The idea of using gravitational waves for communication and the appeal of other alien civilizations communicating through gravitational waves, suggesting the effectiveness of this method for civilizations focused on manufacturing black holes.']}, {'end': 9697.727, 'start': 9520.889, 'title': 'Fine-tuning of universe parameters for intelligent life', 'summary': 'Discusses the fine-tuning of universe parameters for the occurrence of intelligent civilizations and the trade-offs involved, highlighting the need to compromise on various factors in order to test the idea of fine-tuning by examining necessary parameters for different subsystems.', 'duration': 176.838, 'highlights': ['The fine-tuning of universe parameters is crucial for the occurrence of intelligent life, with the ability to produce black holes serving as a defining factor for supreme technological maturity.', 'The occurrence of black holes is not highly improbable, especially if one forms in a galaxy, leading to the production of more black holes than stars in that galaxy.', 'The fine-tuning involves a series of trade-offs, as various necessary conditions for the occurrence of intelligent life, such as stars, water, and rocky planets in the habitable zone, require compromise on precision.', 'Testing the fine-tuning idea involves examining necessary parameters for different subsystems and observing how changing these parameters affects the likelihood of stars forming, rocky planets in the habitable zone, and other factors for the occurrence of intelligent life.', 'The prediction is that the parameters need to be finely adjusted in order for silicon to have the properties it does, indicating the delicate balance required for the occurrence of intelligent life and technology in the universe.']}, {'end': 10212.832, 'start': 9697.887, 'title': 'Rare earth hypothesis and the fermi paradox', 'summary': 'Discusses the potential rarity of intelligent civilizations in the universe, highlighting the commonality of microbial life, the rarity of the cambrian explosion, and the possibility of extremely rare thresholds for the emergence of advanced life forms and technology.', 'duration': 514.945, 'highlights': ['The rarity of the Cambrian explosion is emphasized, suggesting that while microbial life may be common, the emergence of complex organisms is rare. Rarity of the Cambrian explosion, commonality of microbial life', 'Speculation on the extremely rare thresholds for the emergence of advanced life forms and technology, drawing parallels with the Cambrian explosion and the potential rarity of the emergence of humans or advanced civilizations. Speculation on extremely rare thresholds, parallels with Cambrian explosion, potential rarity of humans or advanced civilizations', 'Discussion on the potential rarity of intelligent civilizations in the universe, highlighting the commonality of microbial life, the rarity of the Cambrian explosion, and the possibility of extremely rare thresholds for the emergence of advanced life forms and technology. Potential rarity of intelligent civilizations, commonality of microbial life, rarity of Cambrian explosion, possibility of extremely rare thresholds']}, {'end': 10593.102, 'start': 10214.414, 'title': 'The hierarchy of the universe', 'summary': 'Discusses the hierarchy of the universe, spanning 13.7 billion years, the evolution of stars and life forms, and the possibility of a higher level of hierarchy beyond human intelligence, while exploring the transient nature of conscious beings and the beauty of mortality.', 'duration': 378.688, 'highlights': ["The universe's 13.7 billion-year hierarchy, from chaotic plasma to the evolution of stars and life forms, showcases the beauty and complexity of existence. The transcript discusses the extraordinary hierarchy of the universe, evolving from a chaotic plasma to the formation of stars, solar systems, rocky worlds, gas giants, and various life forms, highlighting the beauty and complexity of existence.", 'The possibility of a higher level of hierarchy beyond human intelligence, potentially residing off Earth, with superconducting cognitive systems capable of observing the universe, is contemplated. The chapter delves into the speculation of a higher level of hierarchy beyond human intelligence, residing off Earth, equipped with superconducting cognitive systems capable of observing the universe, leading to contemplation about the purpose and capabilities of such systems.', 'The discussion on mortality as fundamental to the enjoyment of life and the transient nature of conscious beings, highlighting the beauty of existence despite the inevitable oblivion. The transcript delves into the beauty of mortality and the transient nature of conscious beings, emphasizing the fundamental role of mortality in enhancing the appreciation of life, despite the eventual oblivion of conscious beings.']}], 'duration': 1600.126, 'thumbnail': 'https://coursnap.oss-ap-southeast-1.aliyuncs.com/video-capture/EwueqdgIvq4/pics/EwueqdgIvq48992976.jpg', 'highlights': ['The potential for technological means to create universes, emphasizing the efficiency of compressing matter into a singularity.', 'The concept of intelligent species potentially outpacing the rate at which stars produce offspring universes by populating the asteroid belt is explored.', 'The fine-tuning of universe parameters is crucial for the occurrence of intelligent life, with the ability to produce black holes serving as a defining factor for supreme technological maturity.', 'Speculation on the extremely rare thresholds for the emergence of advanced life forms and technology, drawing parallels with the Cambrian explosion and the potential rarity of the emergence of humans or advanced civilizations.', "The universe's 13.7 billion-year hierarchy, from chaotic plasma to the evolution of stars and life forms, showcases the beauty and complexity of existence."]}], 'highlights': ['The conversation provides a deep technical dive into computing hardware, including neuromorphic computing and superconducting electronics.', 'Optoelectronic intelligence leverages light for communication in brain-inspired computing', 'The precision of photolithography allows for achieving a precision of seven nanometers or even four nanometers using light sources with wavelengths of around 100 nanometers.', "Joseph's injunctions enable high-speed operations within a few tens of picoseconds, leading to devices operating in the hundreds of gigahertz range.", "The brain's asynchronous and network-based computing, devoid of a clock, stands in contrast to the highly serial, clock-dependent operations of digital systems, emphasizing the complex, parallelized nature of brain processing.", 'The hierarchical modular construction of the network and the different behaviors and structures of the cortex and hippocampus modules are crucial for achieving efficient information integration across space and time.', 'The project involves physicists, electrical engineers, and material scientists, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of the project in hardware development for neuroscience.', 'The hardware platform for neural networks is based on circuits using Josephson junctions and superconducting single photon detectors.', "Tesla's focus on developing a large-scale modular machine learning ASIC optimized for autonomous driving is making a significant impact financially and in terms of societal benefit.", 'The concept of intelligent species potentially outpacing the rate at which stars produce offspring universes by populating the asteroid belt is explored.']}